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Evaluating alternative cannabis regimes
Open accessAbstract
Background: Cannabis policy continues to be controversial in North America, Europe and Australia. Aims: To inform this debate, we examine alternative legal regimes for controlling cannabis availability and use. Method: We review evidence on the effects of cannabis depenalisation in the USA, Australia and The Netherlands. We update and extend our previous (MacCoun & Reuter, 1997) empirical comparison of cannabis prevalence statistics in the USA, The Netherlands and other European nations. Results: The available evidence indicates that depenalisation of the possession of small quantities of cannabis does not increase cannabis prevalence. The Dutch experience suggests that commercial promotion and sales may significantly increase cannabis prevalence. Conclusions: Alternatives to an aggressively enforced cannabis prohibition are feasible and merit serious consideration. A model of depenalised possession and personal cultivation has many of the advantages of outright legalisation with few of its risks.
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“The removal of criminal penalties alone had little or no impact on the prevalence of drug use or drug-related health harms.”
From What Can We Learn From The Portuguese Decriminalization of Illicit Drugs? (2010) · cites this paper as MacCoun and Reuter 2001a
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“They concluded that the removal of criminal penalties appeared to produce positive but slight impacts.”
From What Can We Learn From The Portuguese Decriminalization of Illicit Drugs? (2010) · cites this paper as MacCoun and Reuter 2001a
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“The extent of additional use depended rather on the extent to which there was commercial promotion.”
From What Can We Learn From The Portuguese Decriminalization of Illicit Drugs? (2010) · cites this paper as MacCoun and Reuter 2001a
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“The primary impact was reducing the burden and cost in the criminal justice system.”
From What Can We Learn From The Portuguese Decriminalization of Illicit Drugs? (2010) · cites this paper as MacCoun and Reuter 2001a
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“They used the example of the Netherlands, where the rise in cannabis use did not immediately follow its depenalization, but coincided with the development of 'coffee shops' that openly promoted their illicit wares (MacCoun and Reuter 2001b).”
From What Can We Learn From The Portuguese Decriminalization of Illicit Drugs? (2010) · cites this paper as MacCoun and Reuter 2001b
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“This also reduced the intrusiveness of criminal justice responses to users.”
From What Can We Learn From The Portuguese Decriminalization of Illicit Drugs? (2010) · cites this paper as MacCoun and Reuter 2001a
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“Studies also support this impression that the law is poorly enforced, while the penalty rates in Canada are low (Brochu et al., 2011, MacCoun & Reuter, 2001, The Dain Commission, 1973).”
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InfluentialSelf-citationGriffin, K. W., Mahadeo, M., Weinstein, J., & Botvin, G. (2006) · doi:10.21134/haaj.v6i1.102 · Cited by 4
Pragmatic approach to the dangers of cannabis use
Macqueen, A. (2001) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.179.3.270-b · Cited by 4
State adult-use cannabis policy effects on law enforcement efforts to disrupt drug markets.
Montgomery, B., Athimuthu, P., Richardson, N., & Ray, B. R. (2025) · The International journal on drug policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2025.104802 · Cited by 3
Los, G. (2023) · Archives of Criminology · doi:10.7420/ak2022.07 · Cited by 3
“In recent years, more researchers have been diverting their attention from looking at the outcomes of implemented policy (e.g., Reuband 1998; MacCoun, Reuter 2001; Reinarman, Cohen, Kaal 2004; Hughes, Stevens 2010; Krajewski 2013) towards trying to explain what political and social mechanisms lead…”
BackgroundScarscelli, D., Altopiedi, R., Dameno, R., & Verga, M. (2012) · doi:10.3109/09687637.2012.694085 · Cited by 3
“…characterized by different policies (states with repressive policies and states with more liberal ones) (Kilmer, 2002; Lenton & Heale, 2000; MacCoun & Reuter, 2001; McDonald & Atkinson, 1995; Reinarman, Cohen, & Kaal, 2004; Reuband, 1995; Room, Fischer, Hall, Lenton, & Reuter, 2008;…”
The Case for Policy Reform in Cannabis Control
Kisely, S. (2008) · Canadian journal of psychiatry. Revue canadienne de psychiatrie · doi:10.1177/070674370805301203 · Cited by 3
Langzeitschäden durch Cannabis - ein unterschätztes Problem?
Schaub, M., & Stohler, R. (2006) · Swiss Medical Forum ‒ Schweizerisches Medizin-Forum · doi:10.4414/smf.2006.06048 · Cited by 3
Introduction: Why Look to Europe for Lessons?
Kelemen, R. (2015) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781483395357.n1 · Cited by 3
Vastrad, D., Chaudhary, G., & Ronad, S. V. (1962) · The Medical Journal of Australia · doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.1976.tb140860.x · Cited by 393
Does substance use affect educational outcomes
Rees, D. (2014) · doi:10.15185/izawol.66 · Cited by 2
Unintended Negative Social Effects from Policing Cannabis in Copenhagen?
Moeller, K. K. (2010) · Nordic Studies on Alcohol and Drugs · doi:10.1177/145507251002700204 · Cited by 2
Les dommages à long terme de la consommation du cannabis - un problème sous-estimé?
Schaub, M., & Stohler, R. (2006) · Forum Médical Suisse ‒ Swiss Medical Forum · doi:10.4414/fms.2006.06048 · Cited by 2
Legislative Measures’ Impact on the New Psychoactive Substances Market
Beltgens, M. T. (2017) · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-65361-7_10 · Cited by 2
Buller, D., Woodall, W., Saltz, R., Grayson, A., Buller, M., Cutter, G., Svendsen, S., & Liu, X. (2021) · Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs · doi:10.15288/jsad.2021.82.204 · Cited by 1
“Marijuana availability has promoted the initiation of use in the past (Miech et al., 2015; Swahn & Hammig, 2000; Swaim, 2003; von Sydow et al., 2002), leading to concerns over legalization (Damrongplasit et al., 2010; Joffe & Yancy, 2004; MacCoun & Reuter, 2001; Pacula et al., 2004).”
BackgroundCannabis Reclassification: What is the Message to the Next Generation of Cannabis Users?
McCrystal, P., & Winning, K. (2009) · Child Care in Practice · doi:10.1080/13575270802504354 · Cited by 1
“In the Netherlands, reclassification of cannabis resulted in it being openly sold in ‘‘coffee shops’’ (under controlled conditions), despite remaining an illegal drug.”
BackgroundInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- MacCoun, R., & Reuter, P.
- Affiliations
- RAND Corporation (US)
- University of Maryland, Baltimore (US)
- Corresponding author
- MacCoun, Robert
- Venue
- British Journal of Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Royal College of Psychiatrists
- Published
- 2001-02
- Volume
- 178
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 123-128
- ISSN
- 0007-1250 (ISSN-L)
- 1472-1465
- OpenAlex
- W2112660815
- Cited by
- 168
- References
- 18
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 5 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 6.68
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The British Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Alfred P. Sloan Foundation
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology (medical) › Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research
- Social Sciences › Law › Criminal Law and Policy
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
- Keywords
- cannabis policy, cannabis prevalence, cannabis prohibition, self-cultivation, cannabis legalization, drug policy alternatives
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Cannabis, Child, Cocaine, Heroin, Humans, Legislation, Drug, Marijuana Smoking, Netherlands, Illicit Drugs, United States, Prevalence
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