What Can We Learn From The Portuguese Decriminalization of Illicit Drugs?

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Removal of criminal penalties appeared to produce positive but slight impacts.

“They concluded that the removal of criminal penalties appeared to produce positive but slight impacts.”

• cites MacCoun and Reuter 2001a sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract (page unavailable) argues for decriminalising cannabis possession because it does not appear to increase drug prevalence. In “The basis for continued cannabis prohibition” (page unavailable), the authors also describe prohibition as harmful and costly. These passages support a favorable assessment of removing criminal penalties, but they do not characterize its positive impacts as slight. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Best-practice evidence suggests that the most effective treatment response for cannabis-dependent users is a brief intervention involving six sessions of cognitive behavioural therapy, which is not currently provided in Portugal.

“Best-practice evidence suggests that the most effective treatment response for cannabis-dependent users is a 'brief intervention' involving six sessions of cognitive behavioural therapy, yet this is not currently provided in Portugal (see, e.g.Copeland et al. 2001).”

• cites Copeland et al. 2001 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion reports better outcomes for both one- and six-session CBT than for delayed treatment, and greater reductions in cannabis consumption and dependence with six sessions. It also reports no significant difference between the two interventions on several other outcomes, so the trial does not establish six-session CBT as the most effective treatment overall. The cited passages do not address whether it was provided in Portugal. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A particular risk in cross-national policy analysis is ethnocentrism over definitions of key terms and policy rationales.

“For example, Nelken (2009) has argued that one particular risk is of ethnocentrism over definitions of key terms and policy rationales.”

• cites Nelken 2009 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Key informants identified decisions not to replace retiring core CDT staff as the biggest challenge to understanding long-term effects of the reform.

“For key informants, the biggest challenge in understanding the long-term effects of the reform has been a series of decisions to not replace core CDT staff if they retired.”

May combine two claims.

The number of finalized CDT processes decreased between 2003 and 2006, with the proportion of cases receiving an administrative sanction declining from 75 per cent in 2003 to 48 per cent in 2006.

“The number of processes that have been decided upon or 'finalized' decreased between 2003 and 2006, which meant there was an overall decline in the proportion of cases in which drug users received an administrative sanction from the CDTs (from 75 per cent in 2003 to 48 per cent in 2006).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Most referred drug users are male (94 per cent) and between ages 16-24 (47 per cent) and 25-34 (31 per cent).

“Most of the referred drug users are male (94 per cent) and between the ages of 16-24 (47 per cent) and 25-34 (31 per cent).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

As of mid 2008, all CDTs except Vila Real were back in operation.

“As of mid 2008, all CDTs, with the exception of Vila Real, were back in operation.”

May combine two claims.

In Spain, the burden on police grew due to large increases in administrative detections for drug use/possession since 1998 and smaller increases in criminal detections for drug trafficking since 2004.

“This is a notable finding in light of the data from Spain (see Figure 3), where the burden on the police has grown as a result of large increases in the number of offenders detected through the administrative system for drug use/possession (since 1998) and smaller increases in detections through the criminal system for drug trafficking (since 2004) (Reitox National Focal Point 2008).”

• cites Reitox National Focal Point 2008Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

Stakeholders reported that the CDTs provided a broader range of responses.

“the provision of a broader range of responses;”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Stakeholders said the full potential of the reform had not been reached due to lack of full staff in all CDTs and lack of appropriate interventions for young and occasional drug users.

“But, due to the problems cited above, namely the lack of full staff in all CDTs and the lack of appropriate interventions to which to refer young and occasional drug users, stakeholders said the full potential of the reform had not been reached.”

May combine two claims.

Since 2002, the CDTs have initiated about 6,000 administrative processes against drug users per year, trending upwards to 6,543 processes in 2008.

“Since 2002, the CDTs have initiated about 6,000 administrative processes against drug users per year, with the number trending upwards to 6,543 processes in 2008 (Instituto da Droga e da Toxicodepende ˆncia 2009).”

• cites Instituto da Droga e da Toxicodepende ˆncia 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The youth trends in Portugal were similar to those in Italy and Europe, except the 2003-07 decline in any illicit substance use was more pronounced in Portugal and the decline in cannabis use was less pronounced.

“This was very similar to the trends observed in Italy and in broader Europe, with the major differences being that the 2003-07 decline in reported use of any illicit substance appears more pronounced in Portugal and the decline in reported cannabis use appears less pronounced in Portugal.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Only 5-6 per cent of offenders have been referred to a CDT twice in any one year.

“For example, while it is known that only 5-6 per cent of offenders have been referred to a CDT twice in any one year,”

May combine two claims.

Portugal, Spain, and Italy all reported increases in lifetime prevalence of hashish, amphetamines, and cocaine, and in past-year prevalence of cannabis and cocaine.

“All three nations reported increases in lifetime prevalence of hashish, amphetamines and cocaine as well as increases in the last year prevalence of cannabis and cocaine use.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Stakeholders reported that the CDTs increased provision of treatment and harm-reduction services for experienced and dependent users.

“and increased provision of treatment and harm-reduction services for experienced and dependent users.”

May combine two claims.

The quantity of illicit drugs seized in Portugal increased overall, especially drugs destined for external markets.

“But there has been an overall increase in the quantity of illicit drugs seized, particularly those destined for external markets.”

May combine two claims.

Other drug-linked thefts, such as assaults/robberies from post offices and thefts from homes and businesses, declined by 60%, 8%, and 10%, respectively.

“Conversely, other forms of theft such as assaults/robberies from post offices and thefts from homes and businesses (which were deemed strongly linked to drugs) declined by 60, 8 and 10 per cent, respectively.”

• cites Direcc xa ˜o Central de Investigac xa ˜o do Tra ´fico de Estupefacientes 2004Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Rates of intravenous drug use before and inside prison fell, as did HIV prevalence among prisoners.

“Rates of intravenous use before and inside prison had also fallen, as had the prevalence of HIV amongst prisoners.”

• cites Torres 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The central police report concluded that opportunistic crimes increased while more complex, premeditated, and potentially violent crimes decreased.

“The report by the central police agencies concluded that there had been an increase in more opportunistic crimes but a reduction in crimes that were more complex, pre-mediated and likely to involve threats or use of violence (Direcc xa ˜o Central de Investigac xa ˜o do Tra ´fico de Estupefacientes 2004).”

• cites Direcc xa ˜o Central de Investigac xa ˜o do Tra ´fico de Estupefacientes 2004Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In Spain, although problem opiate users declined, estimates from 2006 suggest overall problematic drug users may have increased due to more problematic cocaine users.

“Even in Spain, where the number of problem opiate users is estimated to have declined, estimates from 2006 suggest the overall number of problematic drug users may also have increased, due to an increase in the number of problematic cocaine users (Reitox National Focal Point 2008).”

• cites Reitox National Focal Point 2008Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

Stakeholders reported that the CDTs increased emphasis on prevention for occasional users.

“increased emphasis on prevention for occasional users;”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Key stakeholders in Portugal were in general agreement that there have been small to moderate increases in overall reported drug use among adults.

“Key stakeholders in Portugal were in general agreement that there has been small to moderate increases in overall reported drug use among adults.”

May combine two claims.

Between 1995-99 and 2000-04, the amount of drugs seized increased by 499% overall: cocaine 116%, hashish 134%, heroin 219%, and ecstasy 1,526%.

“As one of the evaluation reports noted between 1995-99 and 2000-04, the amount of drugs seized increased by 499 per cent: 116 per cent for cocaine, 134 per cent for hashish, 219 per cent for heroin and 1,526 per cent for ecstasy (Direcc xa ˜o Central de Investigac xa ˜o do Tra ´fico de Estupefacientes 2004).”

• cites Direcc xa ˜o Central de Investigac xa ˜o do Tra ´fico de Estupefacientes 2004Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Stakeholders reported that the CDTs provided earlier intervention for drug users by a specialist panel of experts.

“According to the stakeholders that we interviewed, the CDTs provided a number of advantages, including: earlier intervention for drug users by a specialist panel of experts;”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In Spain, cocaine replaced heroin as the major cause of hospital admission and is the second most likely drug associated with death.

“For example, in Spain, cocaine has taken over from heroin as the major cause of hospital admission and is the second most likely drug to be associated with death.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In the run-up to the 2009 general election, the incumbent Prime Minister gave a speech in Lisbon at the EMCDDA.

“In the run-up to the 2009 general election, the incumbent Prime Minister gave a speech in Lisbon at the European Monitoring Centre on Drugs and Drug Addiction (So ´crates 2009).”

• cites So ´crates 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Italy showed relatively flat seizure trends with no discernible spikes in hashish or ecstasy quantities since 1999/2000.

“It is also different from Italy (see Figure 6), where there had been relatively flat trends with no discernable spikes in hashish or ecstasy seizure quantities since 1999/2000.12”

• cites EMCDDA 2009bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Among drug users in Portugal, HIV cases fell from 907 to 267 and AIDS cases from 506 to 108 between 2000 and 2008.

“For example, between 2000 and 2008, the number of cases of HIV reduced amongst drug users from 907 to 267 and the number of cases of AIDS reduced from 506 to 108 (Instituto da Droga e da Toxicodepende ˆncia 2009).”

• cites Instituto da Droga e da Toxicodepende ˆncia 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Opiate-related deaths and infectious diseases in Portugal decreased after decriminalization.

“reduction in opiate-related deaths and infectious diseases”

May combine two claims.

There have been significant reductions in mortality, HIV, HCV, and TB in Portugal.

“There have been significant reductions in mortality, HIV, HCV and TB.”

May combine two claims.

All three nations showed a plateau in drug-related deaths in the mid-2000s, but only Portugal had a recent increase.

“All three nations showed a plateau in the mid 2000s but Portugal is unique in the recent increase.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Spanish experts suggested the lack of change was due to greater-than-estimated cocaine supply in Spain.

“Spanish experts therefore have suggested the lack of change is due to greater-thanestimated levels of cocaine supply in Spain (Reitox National Focal Point 2008).”

• cites Reitox National Focal Point 2008Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Seizures spiked for different substances: ecstasy in 2001-2003, hashish in 2003-2006, cocaine in 2004-2006, and larger hashish quantities in 2007-2008.

“Instead, there have been spikes in seizures of a number of different substances with large seizures of ecstasy between 2001 and 2003, hashish between 2003 and 2006, cocaine between 2004 and 2006 and even larger quantities of hashish between 2007 and 2008 (see Figure 4).”

May combine two claims.

The average price of 1 gram of heroin fell from $50.27 in 2001 to $33.25 in 2008, and an ecstasy tablet fell from $6.86 to $2.80.

“For example, the reported average price of 1 gram of heroin decreased from $50.27 in 2001 to $33.25 in 2008 and the average price of an ecstasy tablet fell from $6.86 in 2001 to $2.80 in 2008 (see Table 5).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Prime Minister pledged continuing support for the reform.

“He pledged his continuing support for it.”

• cites So ´crates 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Other jurisdictions such as Western Australia have not been so fortunate and are overturning a hard-fought-for reform.

“Other jurisdictions such as Western Australia have not been so fortunate, and are in the process of overturning a hard-fought-for reform (Barrett 2009).”

• cites Barrett 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Since Portugal introduced its drug strategy and decriminalization, all three nations showed declines in drug-related deaths, with declines more pronounced in Portugal and Italy than in Spain.

“That aside, it is clear that since the Portuguese introduction of its drug strategy and the decriminalization, all three nations showed declines in drug-related deaths, but that the declines were more pronounced in Portugal and Italy than in Spain.”

May combine two claims.

Drug-related deaths due to cocaine and other substances rose in Spain but not in Portugal.

“Other forms of drug-related deaths, especially due to cocaine, have risen in Spain but not Portugal.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The exception in Spain is hash, whose retail prices increased since 2001, argued to be in line with increasing demand.

“The exception is hash, as retail prices have increased since 2001, which is argued to be in line with increasing demand.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The trend in Portugal is similar to that observed in Eastern Europe, such as Croatia and Slovenia.

“The trend in Portugal is similar to that observed in Eastern Europe, such as Croatia and Slovenia.”

May combine two claims.

The reduction in problematic drug users and the reduction in burden of drug offenders on the criminal justice system in Portugal contrasted directly with trends in neighbouring Spain and Italy.

“the reduction in problematic drug users and reduction in burden of drug offenders on the criminal justice system were in direct contrast to those trends observed in neighbouring Spain and Italy”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The trends in Spain and Italy provide a valid comparison to isolate effects specific to Portugal.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Internationally, Portugal has gone furthest in emphasizing treatment as an alternative to prosecution.

“Internationally, Portugal has gone furthest in emphasizing treatment as an alternative to prosecution.”

May combine two claims.

In Portugal, imprisonment for drug use or possession alone was rare, but criminal convictions were the norm.

“In practice, it was rare that people were imprisoned for drug use/possession alone, but criminal convictions were the norm.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Neighbouring Spain apparently experienced market expansions.

“This is in contrast with apparent market expansions in neighbouring Spain.”

May combine two claims.

There was a 280 per cent increase in expiable cannabis offences in South Australia, increasing the burden on the criminal justice system.

“In fact, there was a 280 per cent increase in expiable cannabis offences, which meant there was an overall increase in the burden on the criminal justice system (Christie and Ali 2000).”

• cites Christie and Ali 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In 2001, only 7.8 per cent of 15-64-year-olds in Portugal had ever used an illicit drug.

“In 2001, only 7.8 per cent of 15-64-year-olds in Portugal had ever used an illicit drug (Balsa et al. 2004).”

• cites Balsa et al. 2004Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The new law applies to use/possession of all illicit drugs, including cannabis, heroin and cocaine, but is restricted to up to ten days' worth of a drug.

“The new law applies to use/possession of all illicit drugs-including cannabis, heroin and cocaine-but it is restricted to use/possession of up to ten days' worth of a drug.”

• cites Decreto-Lei n.° 15/93Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Portaria n.° 94/96Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The decriminalization entered into force on 1 July 2001.

“Subsequently, on 1 July 2001, the decriminalization entered into force.”

• cites Lei n.° 30/2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

By 1999, Portugal had the highest rate of drug-related AIDS in the European Union and the second highest prevalence of HIV amongst injecting drug users.

“By 1999, Portugal had the highest rate of drug-related AIDS in the European Union and the second highest prevalence of HIV amongst injecting drug users (EMCDDA 2000).”

• cites EMCDDA 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

A government-appointed expert commission proposed to decriminalize illicit drugs for personal use and to introduce Portugal's first national drug strategy with the goal of a more comprehensive and evidence-informed approach.

“It was within this contextfoot_1 that a government-appointed expert commission proposed to decriminalize illicit drugs for personal use and to introduce Portugal's first national drug strategy, which had the explicit goal of providing a more comprehensive and evidence-informed approach to drug use (Comissa ˜o para a Estrate ´gia Nacional de Combate a `Droga 1998).”

• cites Comissa ˜o para a Estrate ´gia Nacional de Combate a `Droga 1998Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The South Australian cannabis expiation notice scheme led to increased employment prospects and increased trust of police.

“Evaluators found that 'decriminalization' led to increased employment prospects and increased trust of police (Lenton et al. 1999).”

• cites Lenton et al. 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Both sets of recommendations were adopted almost in full, and Portugal commenced the national strategy and expanded resources in May 1999.

“Both sets of recommendations were adopted almost in full (for full details, see Hughes 2006) and Portugal commenced their ambitious reform by rolling out the national strategy and expanded resources in May 1999.”

• cites Hughes 2006Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The new offences are sanctioned through Commissions for the Dissuasion of Drug Addiction (CDTs).

“The new offences are sanctioned through specially devised Commissions for the Dissuasion of Drug Addiction (CDTs).”

• cites Lei n.° 30/2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In 2001/02, 34 per cent of 16-59-year-olds in the United Kingdom had used an illicit drug.

“In contrast, the British Crime Survey reported that in 2001/02, 34 per cent of 16-59-yearolds in the United Kingdom had used an illicit drug (Aust et al. 2002).”

• cites Aust et al. 2002Not checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

May combine two claims.

The Portuguese reform is a comprehensive form of decriminalization, with possession of all drugs for personal use considered an administrative rather than criminal offence.

“The Portuguese reform warrants particular attention, as it is a comprehensive form of decriminalization, with the possession of all drugs, when deemed for personal use, 1 now considered to be an administrative rather than a criminal offence.”

• cites Lei n.° 30/2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Some studies have found a slight increase in drug use following decriminalization.

“Others have found a slight increase (e.g.Williams 2004; Zhao and Harris 2004;Damrongplasit et al. 2010).”

• cites Williams 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Zhao and Harris 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Damrongplasit et al. 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

There was growing concern over social exclusion and marginalization of drug users, and a perception among law enforcement and health sectors that criminalization of drug use was part of the problem.

“There was also growing concern over the social exclusion and marginalization of drug users, and a perception from many areas of society including the law enforcement and health sectors that the criminalization of drug use was increasingly part of the problem, not the solution (Hughes 2006).”

• cites Hughes 2006Not checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Drug-related deaths in Portugal increased to a peak of 369 in 1999, an increase of 57 per cent since 1997.

“Drug-related deaths had increased in Portugal to a peak of 369 in 1999 (an increase of 57 per cent since 1997) (Instituto Portugue ˆs da Droga e da Toxicodepende ˆncia 2000).”

• cites Instituto Portugue ˆs da Droga e da Toxicodepende ˆncia 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Italy and Spain introduced administrative sanctions for drug use in 1990 and 1992, respectively, and neither implemented radical overhauls during the study period.

“Moreover, while Italy and Spain have adopted similar drug policies, namely by introducing administrative sanctions for drug use in 1990 and 1992, respectively (for an overview, see EMCDDA 2005), neither country implemented any radical overhauls during the period of study (Reitox National Focal Point 2008;EMCDDA 2009a).”

• cites EMCDDA 2005Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Reitox National Focal Point 2008Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites EMCDDA 2009aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Decriminalization was deemed to have played a vital role in the advantages of the CDTs, though these advantages were often dependent on increased collaboration and expansion of treatment places.

“While these advantages were often dependent upon the conjoint increase in collaboration and expansion of treatment places, decriminalization was deemed to have played a vital role.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The impacts of decriminalization, particularly the actions of the CDTs, were contingent upon the operation of other organizations, including police and drug treatment services.

“Further limitations were that the impacts of decriminalization-particularly the actions of the CDTs-were also contingent upon the operation of a number of other organizations, including the police and drug treatment services.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The authors used annual EMCDDA data to compare Portuguese trends with trends from Spain and/or Italy, subject to data availability.

“We have therefore used annual data reported to the EMCDDA to analyse Portuguese trends in light of trends from neighbouring Spain and/or Italy, subject to data availability.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Interview data were not intended to reflect the full range of public, professional and political opinion but to supplement and interrogate national documentation.

“Our intention is not to present the interview data as reflecting the full range of public, professional and political opinion, but to use it to supplement and interrogate the data collected from the national documentation.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Comparing Portuguese trends with those of nations that did not undertake the reform counters the absence of a control comparison.

“One way of countering this is by comparing trends from the chosen nation (Portugal) with that of nations that did not undertake the reform.”

May combine two claims.

While general population trends in Portugal show slight increases in lifetime and recent illicit drug use, studies of youth and problematic drug users show declines.

“Thus, while general population trends in Portugal suggest slight increases in lifetime and recent illicit drug use, studies of young and problematic drug users suggest that use has declined.”

May combine two claims.

Individuals found with more than the consumer amount will be charged and referred to the courts, where they may face charges for trafficking or trafficking/consumption.

“Individuals found with more than this quantity will be charged and referred to the courts, where they may face charges for trafficking or trafficking/consumption (where the offender is found in possession of more than the consumer amount, but deemed to have obtained plants, substances or preparations for personal use only) (Decreto-Lei n.° 15/93, de 22 de janeiro 1993).”

• cites Decreto-Lei n.° 15/93Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

No member of the criminal justice system was willing or able to participate in the interviews, though a former police officer and a CDT overseer could comment on criminal justice issues.

“While no member of the criminal justice system was willing/able to take part, one stakeholder was a former police officer and another an overseer of CDT implementation; both were able to comment on criminal justice-related issues.”

May combine two claims.

The constant number of administrative detections indicates no overall increase in formal contact between drug offenders and Portuguese police and no net-widening.

“Equally importantly, the number of people detected under the new law for administrative drug use/possession offences has remained fairly constant at about 6,000 per year, thereby indicating no overall increase in the amount of formal contact that drug offenders are having with Portuguese police and so no net-widening.”

May combine two claims.

Although trends from Spain and Italy are unknown, the evidence suggests that even if drug-related crime increased slightly immediately after the reform, the overall burden of drug-related offenders on the criminal justice system decreased.

“Trends from Spain and Italy are not known, but this further suggests that even if there were small increases in drug-related crime immediately following the reform, there have been overall reductions in the burden of drug-related offenders on the criminal justice system.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The authors' proficiency in Portuguese, collaboration with IDT, and use of IDT support and feedback should reduce the risk of external bias.

“During this process, the primary author had become proficient in reading and speaking Portuguese and collaborated with the IDT.Research for the existing research also utilized the support and feedback from those based in the IDT.These measures should reduce the risk of external bias.”

May combine two claims.

The decline in Portuguese problematic drug use is notable because Italy's number of problematic drug users is thought to have increased.

“This trend is notable given that the number of problematic drug users in Italy is thought to have gone in the opposite direction.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The authors were unable to interview police or criminal justice representatives.

“The sample size was not large enough to reach data saturation and neither were we able to interview police or criminal justice representatives.”

May combine two claims.

The absence of a control comparison is the most important limitation for evaluating national drug policy; there is no counterfactual Portugal that did not decriminalize in 2001.

“The most important for any evaluation of national drug policy is the absence of a control comparison; there is no counterfactual Portugal, which did not decriminalize drugs in 2001.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The authors' research suggests that current theories and assumptions about decriminalization need development.

“Our research suggests that current theories and assumptions about decriminalization are themselves in need of development.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Decriminalization is often discussed as if it is one simple, unitary concept.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The South Australian cannabis expiation notice scheme is one case in point.

“One case in point is the South Australian cannabis expiation notice scheme.”

May combine two claims.

When emerging from dictatorship, Portugal, Italy, and Spain adapted their constitutions to recognize citizenship rights and limit state interference in private life.

“When emerging from dictatorship, all three nations adapted their constitutions to recognize rights to citizenship and limit interference by the state in the private lives of citizens.”

May combine two claims.

Portuguese decriminalization stands in stark contrast to the punitive turn, having been adopted and continued for human rights, social solidarity, and recognition of punitive policy failure.

“Indeed, the Portuguese decriminalization stands in stark contrast to it, given its adoption and continuation for reasons of human rights, social solidarity and acknowledgement of the failure of punitive policies.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The lack of increase in Spanish cocaine prices and stable purity is argued to be odd because other indicators suggest cocaine demand increased.

“Indeed, the lack of increase in the price of cocaine in Spain (and stable purity) is argued to be odd, since other Spanish indicators suggest cocaine demand has been increasing.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The authors dispute Greenwald's tendency to attribute positive changes in Portugal to decriminalization alone.

“For example, we would dispute Greenwald's (2009) tendency to attribute positive changes in Portugal to decriminalization alone.”

• cites Greenwald's (2009) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Portugal appears largely immune to cocaine-related deaths, with very low cocaine use, and decriminalization does not appear to have disturbed this pattern.

“Portugal would appear to have been largely immune to this, with very low levels of cocaine use, and the decriminalization would not appear to have disturbed this pattern.”

May combine two claims.

The major perceived success of the Portuguese reform has been its contribution to public health improvements, with significant early referrals of heroin users to treatment by CDTs.

“The major perceived success of the Portuguese reform has been its contribution to changes in public health problems, with significant referrals-particularly in the early years-by the CDTs of heroin users to treatment.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The Portuguese reform provides important evidence for the debate on decriminalization impacts.

“Yet, the reform provides important evidence for the debate on the impacts of decriminalization.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Portugal, Italy, and Spain all had totalitarian regimes in the last century.

“All had totalitarian regimes in the last century.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Because heroin problems drove the reform, key informants deemed the reduction in overdose and opiate-related deaths a considerable achievement of decriminalization and the broader drug strategy.

“Given that heroin problems were the major driver of the reform, this reduction in overdose and opiate-related death was deemed by key informants as a considerable achievement of both the decriminalization and the broader drug strategy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Other difficulties were less controllable.

“Others were less controllable.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Such effects can be observed when decriminalizing all illicit drugs.

“Moreover, such affects can be observed when decriminalizing all illicit drugs.”

May combine two claims.

The reductions in drug prices may indicate either increased supply or reduced demand.

“The reductions in price may point to two phenomena: increased supply and reduced demand.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

None of the other decriminalization models is as explicitly linked to dissuasion, treatment, and integration as the Portuguese approach.

“None of the other models is as explicitly linked to dissuasion, treatment and integration as the Portuguese approach.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Some difficulties were an inevitable side effect of adopting a new reform.

“Some difficulties were an inevitable side effect of adopting a new reform.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

In the first decade of this century, it has often been claimed that there is a general shift toward punitive penal policies and use of crime policies to legitimate neoliberal governance.

“In the first decade of this century, it has often been claimed that we are witnessing a general shift towards punitive penal policies and the use of crime policies to legitimate neoliberal governance (Garland 2001;Simon 2007).”

• cites Garland 2001;Simon 2007Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The drug price data suggest that reduced use was due to reduced demand rather than successful drug seizures, though more detailed studies are needed to confirm this.

“The drug price data suggest that this was due to reduced demand rather than the success in seizing drugs (which is supposed to limit drug use by reducing availability and increasing price), but more detailed studies would be needed to confirm this.”

May combine two claims.

The authors' multi-year studies illustrate challenges in assessing decriminalization impacts and the importance of timing assessment relative to implementation.

“Our studies of the Portuguese decriminalization over a number of years have further illustrated the challenges in assessing the impacts from such a reform and the need to recognize the importance of the timing of assessment in relation to implementation.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

It remains unclear whether the observed impacts were influenced more by the policy or by its implementation.

“It also remains unclear whether the observed impacts were influenced more by the policy or its implementation.”

May combine two claims.

In 2007, an estimated 3.7 per cent of the Portuguese population aged 15-64 used any illicit drug in the last year, approximately 261,968 people.

“The 2007 data estimated 3.7 per cent population aged 15-64 used any illicit drug in the last year(Balsa et al. 2007) = approximately 261,968 people.”

• cites Balsa et al. 2007Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Data on last-year drug use was not collected in the European School Survey Project on Alcohol and other Drugs (ESPAD).

“Unfortunately, data on last-year use, a more relevant indicator of current drug usage patterns, was not collected in the European School survey Project on Alcohol and other Drugs (ESPAD).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This estimate is similar to other estimates of criminal justice system intervention, which vary between 1 and 3 per cent.

“This estimate is similar to other estimates of CJS intervention, which vary between 1 and 3 per cent (see, e.g.Lenton 2000).”

• cites Lenton 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Combining removal of criminal penalties with alternative therapeutic responses can reduce the burden of drug law enforcement on the criminal justice system while also reducing problematic drug use.

“It can reduce the burden of drug law enforcement on the criminal justice system, while also reducing problematic drug use.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Decriminalization may offer a model for other nations wishing to provide less punitive, more integrated and effective responses to drug use.

“But it may offer a model for other nations that wish to provide less punitive, more integrated and effective responses to drug use.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The Portuguese experience is sufficiently relevant and transferable to serve as a model for other nations.

May combine two claims.

The small increases in adult drug use are less important than the major reductions in opiate-related deaths and infections and reductions in young people's drug use.

“We would argue that they are less important than the major reductions seen in opiate-related deaths and infections, as well as reductions in young people's drug use.”

May combine two claims.

The increase in adult drug use in Portugal reflects regional shifts and/or expansion of services throughout Portugal.

“while some trends clearly reflect regional shifts (e.g. the increase in use amongst adults) and/or the expansion of services throughout Portugal”