Suicide by occupation: Systematic review and meta-analysis
Open accessAbstract
Background: Previous research has shown that those employed in certain occupations, such as doctors and farmers, have an elevated risk of suicide, yet little research has sought to synthesise these findings across working-age populations. Aims: To summarise published research in this area through systematic review and meta-analysis. Method: Random effects meta-analyses were used to calculate a pooled risk of suicide across occupational skill-level groups. Results: Thirty-four studies were included in the meta-analysis. Elementary professions (e.g. labourers and cleaners) were at elevated risk compared with the working-age population (rate ratio (RR) = 1.84, 95% CI 1.46–2.33), followed by machine operators and deck crew (RR = 1.78, 95% CI 1.22–2.60) and agricultural workers (RR = 1.64, 95% CI 1.19–2.28). Results suggested a stepwise gradient in risk, with the lowest skilled occupations being at greater risk of suicide than the highest skill-level group. Conclusions: This is the first comprehensive meta-analytical review of suicide and occupation. There is a need for future studies to investigate explanations for the observed skill-level differences, particularly in people employed in lower skill-level groups. Declaration on interest: None.
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People in unskilled professions have increased suicide risk, partly explained by psychosocial stress, while professions with access to lethal means have high suicide rates.
“People in unskilled professions have an increased risk of suicide, which is partly explained by greater psychosocial stress; however, people in professions with access to lethal means for suicide have high rates, such as farmers, nurses, veterinarians, physicians, and police.29”
From Suicide (2020) · cites this paper as [29]
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“Although evidence suggests that employment lowers the overall risk of suicide [5], it is estimated that between 20%–30% of the workforce will suffer from a serious mental health problem and for every employee who dies by suicide, another 10–20 will make a suicide attempt, with 17% resulting in a permanent disability a…”
BackgroundMilner, A. J., Witt, K., Maheen, H., & LaMontagne, A. D. (2017) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-017-1288-0 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“OAM have been identified as being “at risk” in several previous studies [8, 9, 16, 17, 36].”
ResultSelf-citationFontanella, C. A., Saman, D. M., Campo, J. V., Hiance-Steelesmith, D. L., Bridge, J. A., Sweeney, H. A., & Root, E. D. (2018) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.10.033 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Occupation-specific suicide risk in England: 2011–2015
Windsor‐Shellard, B., & Gunnell, D. (2019) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.2019.69 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Reducing Suicide Risk: Challenges and Opportunities in the Emergency Department
Betz, M. E., Wintersteen, M., Boudreaux, E. D., Brown, G., Capoccia, L., Currier, G., Goldstein, J., King, C., Manton, A., Stanley, B., et al. (2016) · Annals of Emergency Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2016.05.030 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Considine, R., Tynan, R. J., James, C. L., Wiggers, J., Lewin, T. J., Inder, K., Perkins, D. A., Handley, T. E., & Kelly, B. J. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0168445 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Barry, R., Rehm, J. T., de Oliveira, C., Gozdyra, P., & Kurdyak, P. A. (2020) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0706743720902655 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
“Another potential explanation is that males in rural areas are likely to be employed in occupations such as farming or forestry, which are associated with higher risk of suicide.(24) Further research examining both suicide and suicide attempts by sex could help clarify this relationship.”
BackgroundCarrasco-Barrios, M. T., Huertas, P., Martín, P., Martín, C., Castillejos, M. C., Petkari, E., & Moreno‐Küstner, B. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17114115 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
“Factors that have been studied in systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses include individual psychological variables such as hopelessness [10], alexithymia [11] or self-esteem [12], and groups of psychological variables—for example, a systematic review that includes mental pain, communication difficulties, decision-ma…”
BackgroundSocioeconomic status and depressive symptoms and suicidality: The role of subjective social status
Madigan, A., & Daly, M. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.01.078 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Davidson, J. E., Proudfoot, J. A., Lee, K. C., & Zisook, S. (2019) · Archives of Psychiatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.apnu.2019.04.006 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Suicide Among Farmers in France: Occupational Factors and Recent Trends
Bossard, C., Santin, G., & Canu, I. G. (2016) · Journal of Agromedicine · doi:10.1080/1059924x.2016.1211052 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“There are many personal and environmental reasons why people choose to take their own lives.(1,12,19,31) Farmers’ working conditions are characterized by strong physical constraints, long working hours, strong economic pressure, especially due to their direct dependence on fluctuations in European public policies, env…”
BackgroundDavidson, J. E., Zisook, S., Kirby, B., DeMichele, G., & Norcross, W. A. (2018) · JONA The Journal of Nursing Administration · doi:10.1097/nna.0000000000000582 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“Healthcare providers may be at especially high risk.(4,5) The purpose of this article is to describe a suicide prevention program developed for nurses.”
Suicide by occupational skill level in the Australian construction industry: data from 2001 to 2010
Milner, A. J., Niven, H., & LaMontagne, A. D. (2014) · Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1111/1753-6405.12205 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Self-citationEnvironmental factors and suicide in Australian farmers: A qualitative study
Perceval, M., Kõlves, K., Ross, V. L., Reddy, P., & Leo, D. D. (2018) · Archives of Environmental & Occupational Health · doi:10.1080/19338244.2018.1453774 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Tynan, R. J., James, C. L., Considine, R., Skehan, J., Gullestrup, J., Lewin, T. J., Wiggers, J. H., & Kelly, B. J. (2018) · International Journal of Mental Health Systems · doi:10.1186/s13033-018-0245-8 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“It is particularly noteworthy that suicide rates are highest in some maledominated occupations [14], reflecting greater rates of suicide among males in general [15], but also suggesting contributing factors in specific occupational groups (e.”
BackgroundMilner, A. J., Kavanagh, A. M., King, T. L., & Currier, D. (2018) · American Journal of Men s Health · doi:10.1177/1557988317752607 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Self-citationRoss, V. L., Mathieu, S. L., Wardhani, R., Gullestrup, J., & Kõlves, K. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.629262 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Roswall, N., Sandin, S., Löf, M., Skeie, G., Olsen, A., Adami, H., & Weiderpass, E. (2015) · European Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s10654-015-0021-x · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“We found no association with death due to injuries/suicide; this speaks against residual confounding of socioeconomic status, as these deaths are not expected to be associated with dietary factors, but have, on the contrary, been found inversely related to socioeconomic status [43, 44].”
BackgroundSocial factors and Australian farmer suicide: a qualitative study
Perceval, M., Ross, V. L., Kõlves, K., Reddy, P., & Leo, D. D. (2018) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-018-6287-7 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Sociodemographic Antecedent Validators of Suicidal Behavior: A Review of Recent Literature
Conejero, I., López-Castromán, J., Giner, L., & Baca-García, E. (2016) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-016-0732-z · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Sayers, E., Rich, J., Rahman, M. M., Kelly, B. J., & James, C. L. (2019) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/jom.0000000000001605 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“People employed in blue collar employment categories are at a significantly higher risk of suicide than the general working age population, with men in these low skilled roles most at risk.(12,13) Research by Cohidon et al, 14 suggests that depressive symptoms experienced by individuals employed in lower skilled jobs…”
BackgroundMass Murder, Mental Illness, and Men
Stone, M. H. (2015) · Violence and Gender · doi:10.1089/vio.2015.0006 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“Parenthetically, unskilled workers and others at the lower end of the pay scale are also more vulnerable to suicide (Milner et al. 2013).”
Zimmermann, C., Strohmaier, S., Herkner, H., Niederkrotenthaler, T., & Schernhammer, E. S. (2024) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj-2023-078964 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Milner, A. J., Witt, K., Maheen, H., & LaMontagne, A. D. (2017) · Work · doi:10.3233/wor-172554 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“Although active employment is a protective factor against suicide, emerging research suggests that employees in certain occupations are at an increased risk of suicide as compared to both the general population and the general working population [1].”
Self-citationKing, T. L., Batterham, P. J., Lingard, H. C., Gullestrup, J., Lockwood, C., Harvey, S. B., Kelly, B. J., LaMontagne, A. D., & Milner, A. J. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16030475 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“In particular, research suggests that those in the highest occupational skill level group have lower rates of suicide, while those employed in the lowest skill level such as labourers, cleaners, or plant operators have higher rates of suicide [7].”
BackgroundSelf-citationMortality rates by occupation in Korea: a nationwide, 13-year follow-up study
Lee, H., Kim, H., Chung, Y. K., Kang, S., & Kim, E.-A. L. (2016) · Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1136/oemed-2015-103192 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Turner, K. A., Stapelberg, N. J. C., Svetičič, J., & Dekker, S. W. A. (2020) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0004867420918659 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“…local level have accountability for addressing these cultural changes as a matter of priority, not only because healthcare workers are already overrepresented in suicide statistics (Milner et al., 2013; Tramutola, 2015), but also because, as has been outlined, this is a vital patient safety issue.”
BackgroundThe Mental Health of the Organic Farmer: Psychosocial and Contextual Actors
Brigance, C., Más, F. S., Sánchez, V., & Handal, A. J. (2018) · Workplace Health & Safety · doi:10.1177/2165079918783211 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Duckworth, J., Hasan, A., & Kamardeen, I. (2022) · Engineering Construction & Architectural Management · doi:10.1108/ecam-11-2021-1022 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Milner, A. J., Niven, H., & LaMontagne, A. D. (2015) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-015-0608-5 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“org/publicdomain/ze inequalities in rates [8, 9].”
Self-citationDomains of Psychosocial Risk Factors Affecting Young Construction Workers: A Systematic Review
Frimpong, S., Sunindijo, R. Y., Wang, C., & Boadu, E. F. (2022) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings12030335 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“Themes in this domain include low “educational attainment”, having no prior knowledge of the construction environment [43], and a low level of professional skills [10,17].”
BackgroundInfluentialWork characteristics and suicidal ideation in young adults in France
Dalglish, S. L., Melchior, M., Younès, N., & Surkan, P. J. (2014) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-014-0969-y · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Ross, V. L., Caton, N. R., Gullestrup, J., & Kõlves, K. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16162979 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“There is growing evidence from around the world that males working in the construction sector are in one of the highest occupational risk groups for suicide [1,2].”
BackgroundFarmers, mechanized work, and links to obesity
Pickett, W., King, N., Lawson, J. A., Dosman, J. A., Trask, C., Brison, R. J., Hagel, L. M., & Janssen, I. (2014) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2014.11.012 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“Yet, a number of quiet epidemics have been recognized within agricultural populations, including physical trauma and injury (Pickett et al., 2001), poor mental health (Gregoire, 2002), suicide (Milner et al., 2013), and occupationrelated respiratory disease (Kirkhorn et al., 2000).”
BackgroundFarm-Related Concerns and Mental Health Status Among Norwegian Farmers
Logstein, B. (2016) · Journal of Agromedicine · doi:10.1080/1059924x.2016.1211055 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Physician death by suicide in the United States: 2012–2016
Ye, G. Y., Davidson, J. E., Kim, K., & Zisook, S. (2020) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.12.064 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Fakhari, A., Farahbakhsh, M., Esmaeili, E. D., & Azizi, H. (2021) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-021-11527-9 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“Similar results were found by a systematic review and meta-analysis for the association between suicide and occupation [39].”
ResultFactors Associated with Suicidal Behavior in Farmers: A Systematic Review
Santos, E. G. D. O., Queiroz, P. R., Nunes, A. D. D. S., Vedana, K. G. G., & Barbosa, I. R. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18126522 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Suicidal ideation and related factors in construction industry apprentices
Ross, V. L., Mathieu, S. L., Wardhani, R., Gullestrup, J., & Kõlves, K. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.10.073 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Doran, C. M., Ling, R., Gullestrup, J., Swannell, S., & Milner, A. J. (2015) · Crisis · doi:10.1027/0227-5910/a000362 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Self-citationFarm suicides in New Zealand, 2007–2015: A review of coroners’ records
Beautrais, A. L. (2017) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0004867417704058 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“…are consistent with the fact that there are more labourers than owners or managers on farms, they also reflect the fact that, as with most occupations, those with fewest skills, and least education, are at higher risk of suicide than those with superior skills and education (Milner et al., 2013).”
BackgroundResultHammer, L. B., Dimoff, J. K., Mohr, C. D., & Allen, S. J. (2024) · Occupational Health Science · doi:10.1007/s41542-023-00171-x · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“…illegitimate tasks, role conflict, role ambiguity) have been related to mental health outcomes (e.g., Choi, 2018; Demerouti et al., 2001; Milner et al., 2013, 2018; Niedhammer et al., 2021; Yarker et al., 2022), including elevated risk of death by suicide and suicidal behaviors (e.g.,…”
Working-Class Men’s Constructions of Help-Seeking When Feeling Depressed or Sad
Mahalik, J. R., & Backus, F. R. (2019) · American Journal of Men s Health · doi:10.1177/1557988319850052 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
A Longitudinal Assessment of Two Suicide Prevention Training Programs for the Construction Industry
Ross, V. L., Caton, N. R., Gullestrup, J., & Kõlves, K. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17030803 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Suicidio, desempleo y recesión económica en España
García, C. I., Sáiz, P. A., Burón, P., Lasheras, F. S., Jiménez-Treviño, L., Fernández‐Artamendi, S., Al‐Halabí, S., Corcoran, P. E., García‐Portilla, M. P., & Bobes, J. (2017) · Revista de Psiquiatría y Salud Mental · doi:10.1016/j.rpsm.2016.04.005 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
King, T. L., Gullestrup, J., Batterham, P. J., Kelly, B. J., Lockwood, C., Lingard, H. C., Harvey, S. B., LaMontagne, A. D., & Milner, A. J. (2018) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph15102106 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Men are known to be at higher risk [2], as are those employed in certain occupations [3].”
BackgroundSelf-citationTang, H., Lu, Y., Donahoo, W. T., Shao, H., Shi, L., Fonseca, V. A., Guo, Y., Bian, J., & Guo, J. (2024) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/m24-0329 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“Second, despite the comprehensive inclusion criteria and adjustment for a long list of covariates, we cannot completely rule out the possibility of residual confounding by unmeasured covariates, such as BMI (50) and socioeconomic status (51, 52).”
(SNC), F. T. S. N. C., Canu, I. G., Bovio, N., Médiouni, Z., Bochud, M., & Wild, P. P. (2019) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-019-01728-4 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Inequalities and Suicidal Behavior
Platt, S. D. (2016) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118903223.ch15 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Zimmermann, C., Strohmaier, S., Niederkrotenthaler, T., Thau, K., & Schernhammer, E. S. (2023) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2023.115170 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Work‐related suicide: Evolving understandings of etiology & intervention
LaMontagne, A. D., Åberg, M., Blomqvist, S., Glozier, N., Greiner, B. A., Gullestrup, J., Harvey, S. B., Kyron, M. J., Madsen, I. E. H., Hanson, L. L. M., et al. (2024) · American Journal of Industrial Medicine · doi:10.1002/ajim.23624 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citationMilner, A. J., Spittal, M. J., Pirkis, J., Chastang, J., Niedhammer, I., & LaMontagne, A. D. (2016) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0000000000000389 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citationStanley, I. H., Hom, M. A., Spencer‐Thomas, S., & Joiner, T. E. (2017) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.06.016 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“…and behaviors) among U.S. adults, recent policy statements have advocated specifically for the examination of at-risk subgroups (US Department of Health and Human Services, 2012), including high-risk occupational groups (McIntosh et al., 2016; Milner et al., 2015, 2013; Tiesman et al., 2015).”
BackgroundKing, M., Matson, R., & DeVries, T. J. (2021) · Animal Welfare · doi:10.7120/09627286.30.1.025 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Gallyer, A. J., Dougherty, S. P., Gai, A. R., Stanley, I. H., Hom, M. A., Rogers, M. L., Duffy, M. E., Buchman‐Schmitt, J. M., Spencer‐Thomas, S., & Joiner, T. E. (2018) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2018.05.045 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Dwyer, A., Neto, A. D. A., Estival, D., Li, W., Lam‐Cassettari, C., & Antoniou, M. (2021) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/19478 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Farmers are at an increased risk of suicide compared with other occupations in rural and remote communities [8-10].”
BackgroundMatthews, L. R., Gerald, J., & Jessup, G. M. (2021) · International Journal of Mental Health Systems · doi:10.1186/s13033-021-00489-5 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“The socio-economic barriers to seeking care is of particular interest to men’s use of EAP services because workers in the lower skilled occupations (blue-collar workers), who are most likely to have limited social and economic resources and access to health care, have also been found to be at greater risk of suicide t…”
BackgroundChinese nurses are at high risk for suicide: A review of nurses suicide in China 2007–2016
Zeng, H. J., Zhou, G., Yan, H. H., Yang, X. H., & Jin, H. M. (2018) · Archives of Psychiatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.apnu.2018.07.005 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Psychological distress and suicidal ideation among male construction workers in the United States
Dong, X. S., Brooks, R. D., Brown, S., & Harris, W. J. (2022) · American Journal of Industrial Medicine · doi:10.1002/ajim.23340 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Conway, P. M., Erlangsen, A., Grynderup, M. B., Clausen, T., Rugulies, R., Bjørner, J. B., Burr, H., Francioli, L., Garde, A. H., Hansen, Å. M., et al. (2022) · Scandinavian Journal of Work Environment & Health · doi:10.5271/sjweh.4034 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“This is a limitation because previous research suggests that both the risk of workplace bullying ( 29 ) and the risk of suicide might differ according to occupation ( 30).”
Mental health by gender-specific occupational groups: Profiles, risks and dominance of predictors
Halonen, J. I., Koskinen, A., Varje, P., Kouvonen, A. M., Hakanen, J., & Väänänen, A. (2018) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2018.06.007 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Arensman, E., O’Connor, C., Leduc, C., Griffin, E., Cully, G., Dhálaigh, D. N., Holland, C., Audenhove, C. V., Coppens, E., Tsantila, F., et al. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19020947 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Blomqvist, S., Virtanen, M., LaMontagne, A. D., & Hanson, L. L. M. (2022) · Scandinavian Journal of Work Environment & Health · doi:10.5271/sjweh.4015 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“A similar pattern has been observed with regard to suicide risk (52).”
ResultSelf-citationAssociations between marital and educational status and risk of completed suicide in Hungary
Bálint, L., Osváth, P., Rihmer, Z., & Döme, P. (2015) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.11.011 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Time trend of suicide in Swiss male farmers and comparison with other men: a cohort study
Steck, N., Junker, C., Bopp, M., Egger, M., & Zwahlen, M. (2020) · Swiss Medical Weekly · doi:10.4414/smw.2020.20251 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Ideación suicida en estudiantes de medicina: prevalencia y factores asociados
Pinzón, A., Guerrero, S., Moreno, K., Landínez, C., & Pinzón, J. (2013) · Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría · doi:10.1016/j.rcp.2013.11.005 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Witt, K., Milner, A. J., Allisey, A., Davenport, L. J., & LaMontagne, A. D. (2017) · American Journal of Industrial Medicine · doi:10.1002/ajim.22676 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationThe role of work in suicidal behavior – uncovering priorities for research and prevention
Greiner, B. A., & Arensman, E. (2022) · Scandinavian Journal of Work Environment & Health · doi:10.5271/sjweh.4051 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“Elementary workers had the highest suicide risk, which reflects the general finding of a gradient with the lowest skilled occupations experiencing a higher risk than highly skilled workers (3).”
BackgroundCommunity-based death preparation and education: A scoping review
Park, S., Kim, H., Jang, M. K., Kim, H., Raszewski, R., & Doorenbos, A. Z. (2022) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2022.2045524 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Considering that occupational and employment status affects the risk of suicide and that socioeconomic level is a factor affecting death (Milner et al., 2013), LDE for people with lower-skill jobs may serve to reduce their suicide risk.”
BackgroundSocioeconomic inequalities in suicide mortality before and after the economic recession in Spain
Borrell, C., Marí-Dell’Olmo, M., Gotsens, M., Calvo, M., Rodríguez‐Sanz, M., Bartoll, X., & Esnaola, S. (2017) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-017-4777-7 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Predictive factors to avoid farming as a livelihood
Mallappa, V. K. H., Chauhan, N. B., Patel, D. D., & Patel, J. (2019) · Journal of Economic Structures · doi:10.1186/s40008-019-0141-7 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Milner, A., Currier, D., LaMontagne, A. D., Spittal, M. J., & Pirkis, J. (2017) · Public Health · doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2017.02.003 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“perspective, employed males in lower skilled occupations are particularly exposed to poor working conditions(16) and have the highest rates of suicide.(17) These males are therefore likely to be particularly at risk.”
BackgroundSelf-citationNiedhammer, I., Bèque, M., Chastang, J., & Bertrais, S. (2020) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-020-09019-3 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Milner, A. J., Scovelle, A. J., & King, T. L. (2018) · Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences · doi:10.1017/s2045796018000367 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“females are more likely to be nurses, while men are more likely to be employed in construction), but also in the fact that suicide rates vary in different occupations, with male-dominated occupations tending to have higher rates of suicide than female-dominated occupations (Milner et al., 2013).”
BackgroundSelf-citationPotential rents vs. potential lives
Clark, E., & Pissin, A. (2020) · Environment and Planning A Economy and Space · doi:10.1177/0308518x20971308 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Occupational differences in suicide mortality among Japanese men of working age
Wada, K., Eguchi, H., Prieto‐Merino, D., & SMITH, D. R. (2015) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.10.032 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“A previous meta-analysis found that less-skilled occupations have a higher risk of suicide when compared to more highly skilled occupations, such as managerial work, which shows the lowest risk of suicide (Milner et al., 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialA History of Male Psychological Disorders in Britain, 1945–1980
Haggett, A. (2015) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/9781137448880 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Mates in Construction Suicide Prevention Program: A Five Year Review
Martin, G., & Swannell, S. (2016) · Journal of Community Medicine & Health Education · doi:10.4172/2161-0711.1000465 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“The lowest skilled groups may be at most risk, especially during the job uncertainty of recession [26].”
Background
- Authors
- Milner, A., Spittal, M. J., Pirkis, J., & LaMontagne, A. D.
- Affiliations
- The University of Melbourne (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Milner, Allison
- Venue
- British Journal of Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Royal College of Psychiatrists
- Published
- 2013-12
- Volume
- 203
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 409-416
- ISSN
- 0007-1250 (ISSN-L)
- 1472-1465
- OpenAlex
- W2159544002
- Cited by
- 387
- References
- 75
- Citations by year
- 2026: 22 · 2025: 41 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 46 · 2021: 39 · 2020: 26 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 29 · 2017: 23 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 2.34
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The British Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Own your potential (DEAKIN) (submittedVersion)
- Minerva Access (University of Melbourne) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Medical Research Council
- National Health and Medical Research Council (546248)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Suicide and Self-Harm Studies
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Workplace Health and Well-being
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Homicide, Infanticide, and Child Abuse
- Keywords
- suicide, occupational risk, occupational skill level, low-skilled workers, agricultural labor, machine operators, labourers, working-age population
- MeSH terms
- Employment, Humans, Occupations, Regression Analysis, Risk Factors, Social Class, Suicide, Odds Ratio, Sex Distribution
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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