The DOI matches its Crossref record; 28 of the 28 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Generative Learning Processes of the Brain
Abstract
This article presents a functional model of learning from teaching that, in contrast to structural models of schemata and knowledge representation, focuses on the neural and cognitive processes that learners use to generate meaning and understanding from instruction. Wittrock's model of generative learning (Wittrock, 1974a, 1990) consists of four major processes: (a) attention, (b) motivation, (c) knowledge and preconceptions, and (d) generation. Each of these processes involves generative brain functions studied in neural research and generative cognitive functions studied in knowledge-acquisition research. In this model of generative learning, the brain is a model builder. It does not transform input into output. Instead, it actively controls the processes of generating meaning and plans of action that make sense of experience and that respond to perceived realities. Within this framework, teaching becomes the process of leading learners to use their generative processes to construct meanings and plans of action.
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“We conceptualize language as a situated, dialogic, and generative practice [63,68,69].”
From A Systematic Review of Generative AI in K–12: Mapping Goals, Activities, Roles, and Outcomes via the 3P Model (2025) · cites this paper as [63]
Citations
Cites
Schemata: The Building Blocks of Cognition
Rumelhart, D. E. (2017) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315107493-4 · Cited by 2,584
On the proper treatment of connectionism
Smolensky, P. (1988) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00052432 · Cited by 2,146
The generation effect: delineation of a phenomenon
Slamecka, N. J., & Graf, P. (1978) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.4.6.592 · Cited by 1,659
Generative Processes of Comprehension
Wittrock, M. (1989) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2404_2 · Cited by 978
Self-citationLearning as a generative process 1
Wittrock, M. C. (1974) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461527409529129 · Cited by 834
Self-citationHemisphere deconnection and unity in conscious awareness.
Sperry, R. W. (1968) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/h0026839 · Cited by 806
Learning science: A generative process
Osborne, R. J., & Wittrock, M. C. (1983) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.3730670406 · Cited by 697
Self-citationFreeman, W. (1989) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 573
The Generative Learning Model and its Implications for Science Education
Osborne, R. J., & Wittrock, M. C. (1985) · Studies in Science Education · doi:10.1080/03057268508559923 · Cited by 380
Self-citationGenerative processes in reading comprehension.
Doctorow, M., Wittrock, M., & Marks, C. (1978) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.70.2.109 · Cited by 247
Self-citationGeneration of Summaries and Analogies and Analytic and Holistic Abilities
Wittrock, M., & Alesandrini, K. (1990) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312027003489 · Cited by 169
Self-citationGenerative Teaching of Comprehension
Wittrock, M. C. (1991) · The Elementary School Journal · doi:10.1086/461686 · Cited by 129
Self-citationThe Teaching of Reading Comprehension according to the Model of Generative Learning
Linden, M. A., & Wittrock, M. C. (1981) · Reading Research Quarterly · doi:10.2307/747248 · Cited by 120
Self-citationReading as a generative process.
Wittrock, M. C., Marks, C., & Doctorow, M. (1975) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0077017 · Cited by 120
Self-citationThe Neuropsychology of Attention: Emotional and Motivational Controls
McGuinness, D., & Pribram, K. H. (1980) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-761050-4.50010-6 · Cited by 99
A Generative Model of Mathematics Learning
Wiitrock, M. C. (1974) · Journal for Research in Mathematics Education · doi:10.5951/jresematheduc.5.4.0181 · Cited by 69
Wittrock, M. C. (1981) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-185030-2.50014-7 · Cited by 59
Self-citationGenerative Processing of Hierarchically Organized Words
Wittrock, M. C., & Carter, J. F. (1975) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1421780 · Cited by 54
Self-citationCerebral Asymmetry and the Psychology of Man
Levy, J. (1980) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-761050-4.50013-1 · Cited by 50
A biofunctional model of distributed mental content, mental structures, awareness, and attention
Iran‐Nejad, A., & Ortony, A. (1984) · The Journal of mind and behavior · Cited by 44
Wittrock, M. C. (1980) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-761050-4.50017-9 · Cited by 44
Self-citationGazzaniga, M. S. (1975) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/bf00314600 · Cited by 41
Verbal and graphical strategies in the teaching of economics
Kourilsky, M. L., & Wittrock, M. C. (1987) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/0742-051x(87)90030-8 · Cited by 34
Self-citationA nonconnectionist schema theory of understanding surprise‐ending stories
Iran‐Nejad, A. (1989) · Discourse Processes · doi:10.1080/01638538909544723 · Cited by 24
Education and Recent Research on Attention and Knowledge Acquisition
Wittrock, M. C. (1986) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-268330-5.50012-3 · Cited by 20
Self-citationFunctional Organization of the Human Brain
Trevarthen, C. (1980) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-761050-4.50008-8 · Cited by 18
Psychophysiology of learning and memory
Thomas, C. C. (1972) · Journal of Communication Disorders · doi:10.1016/0021-9924(72)90042-1 · Cited by 8
Generated meanings in the comprehension of word problems in mathematics
Peled, Z., & Wittrock, M. C. (1990) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/bf00120195 · Cited by 4
Self-citation
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Theobald, E. J., Hill, M. J., Tran, E., Agrawal, S., Arroyo, E. N., Behling, S., Chambwe, N., Cintrón, D. L., Cooper, J. D., Dunster, G., et al. (2020) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1916903117 · Cited by 1,387
Eight Ways to Promote Generative Learning
Fiorella, L., & Mayer, R. E. (2016) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9348-9 · Cited by 832
“…with testable predictions concerning instructional methods and learning strategies aimed at promoting student understanding (Fiorella and Mayer 2015; King 1994; Mayer 2014; Mayer and Wittrock 1996, 2006; Novak 2010; Sweller et al. 2011; Weinstein and Mayer 1986; Webb 1982; Wittrock 1991, 1992).”
BackgroundEffects of flipping the classroom on learning outcomes and satisfaction: A meta-analysis
van Alten, D. C. D., Phielix, C., Janssen, J. J. H. M., & Kester, L. (2019) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2019.05.003 · Cited by 735
“Our mind actively and dynamically constructs meaning by building relations with prior-knowledge (Wittrock, 1992).”
BackgroundŠkerlavaj, M., Štemberger, M. I., Škrinjar, R., & Dimovski, V. (2006) · International Journal of Production Economics · doi:10.1016/j.ijpe.2006.07.009 · Cited by 401
The impact of augmented reality on cognitive load and performance: A systematic review
Buchner, J., Buntins, K., & Kerres, M. (2021) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12617 · Cited by 496
Metadata
- Authors
- Wittrock, M. C.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Corresponding author
- Wittrock, Merlin C.
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 1992-09-01
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 531-541
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1969049312
- Cited by
- 343
- References
- 28
- Citations by year
- 2026: 18 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 19 · 2012: 25
- FWCI
- 0.64
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neuroscience, Education and Cognitive Function
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational methodologies and cognitive development
- Keywords
- generative learning, learning from teaching, attention, motivation, meaning generation, knowledge acquisition, brain function, cognitive processes, instructional design
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