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Cited by 145Ovarian function and disordersDiabetes, Cardiovascular Risks, and LipoproteinsEstrogen and related hormone effects

Longitudinal Study of Insulin Resistance and Sex Hormones over the Menstrual Cycle: The BioCycle Study

Open access
Yeung, Edwina H., Zhang, Cuilin, Mumford, Sunni L., Ye, Aijun, Trevisan, Maurizio, Chen, Liwei, Browne, Richard W., Wactawski-Wende, Jean +1 more·2010·The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
DOI 10.1210/jc.2010-0702PMC PMC2999972
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Abstract

CONTEXT: Conflicting findings have been reported regarding the effect of menstrual cycle phase and sex hormones on insulin sensitivity. OBJECTIVE: The aim was to determine the pattern of insulin resistance over the menstrual cycle and whether variations in sex hormones explain these patterns. DESIGN: The BioCycle study is a longitudinal study that measured hormones at different phases of the menstrual cycle. Participants had up to eight visits per cycle; each visit was timed using fertility monitors to capture sensitive windows of hormonal changes. SETTING: The study was conducted in the general community of the University at Buffalo (Buffalo, NY). PARTICIPANTS: A total of 257 healthy, premenopausal women (age, 27±8 yr; body mass index, 24±4 kg/m2) participated in the study. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: We measured fasting insulin, glucose, and insulin resistance by the homeostasis model of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR). RESULTS: Significant changes in HOMA-IR were observed over the menstrual cycle; from a midfollicular phase level of 1.35, levels rose to 1.59 during the early luteal phase and decreased to 1.55 in the late-luteal phase. HOMA-IR levels primarily reflected changes in insulin and not glucose. After adjustment for age, race, cycle, and other sex hormones, HOMA-IR was positively associated with estradiol (β=0.082; P<0.001) and progesterone (β=0.025; P<0.001), and inversely associated with FSH (adjusted β=-0.040; P<0.001) and SHBG (β=-0.085; P<0.001). LH was not associated with HOMA-IR. Further adjustment for BMI weakened the association with SHBG (β=-0.057; P=0.06) but did not affect other associations. CONCLUSION: Insulin exhibited minor menstrual cycle variability. Estradiol and progesterone were positively associated with insulin resistance and should be considered in studies of insulin resistance among premenopausal women.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In the BioCycle longitudinal study of 257 healthy premenopausal women, insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) varied modestly across the menstrual cycle, rising from midfollicular to early luteal phase. Estradiol and progesterone were positively associated with HOMA-IR, while FSH and SHBG were inversely associated; the SHBG association weakened after BMI adjustment.

Key findings

  • HOMA-IR changed significantly over the menstrual cycle: midfollicular 1.35, early luteal 1.59, late luteal 1.55; maximum age-adjusted mean differences over the whole cycle were 0.3 U HOMA-IR and 1.4 IU/ml insulin. HOMA-IR primarily reflected changes in insulin, not glucose.
  • After adjustment for age, race, cycle, and other sex hormones, HOMA-IR was positively associated with estradiol (β = 0.082; P < 0.001) and progesterone (β = 0.025; P < 0.001), and inversely associated with FSH (adjusted β = −0.040; P < 0.001) and SHBG (β = −0.085; P < 0.001); LH was not associated.
  • Further adjustment for BMI weakened the SHBG association (β = −0.057; P = 0.06) but did not affect other associations. In model 1, SHBG was inversely associated with insulin (β = −0.73; P < 0.001) and HOMA-IR (β = −0.85; P < 0.001). Glucose was negatively associated with estradiol alone.
  • An overall significant 6% increase in HOMA-IR levels was observed during cycle 2.

Methods

  • Longitudinal BioCycle study recruited 259 healthy premenopausal women (18–44 yr) and followed them for one (n = 9) or two (n = 250) menstrual cycles; 257 were analyzed after excluding two women with outlying insulin. Participants had up to eight visits per cycle timed by fertility monitors to capture menstrual phases.
  • Fasting serum insulin, glucose, SHBG, estradiol, progesterone, LH, and FSH were measured; insulin resistance was calculated by HOMA-IR = fasting insulin (U/ml) × fasting glucose (mmol/liter)/22.5.
  • Linear mixed models assessed cycle variability; marginal structural models with inverse probability weighting tested associations of each sex hormone/SHBG with insulin and HOMA-IR, adjusted for age, race, sex hormones, and SHBG (model 1), plus BMI (model 2), plus caloric intake and physical activity (model 3).

Limitations

  • Stated: no testosterone measurement; HOMA-IR is a surrogate and applies only to the fasting state, not postprandial glucose metabolism; observed variation in insulin resistance was small and may be of minor clinical relevance; pulsatility of LH and progesterone may affect single-day representativeness.
  • Stated: the study included healthy, regularly menstruating women without PCOS, pregnancy, or chronic disease, so findings may not apply to women whose insulin resistance is altered by those conditions.
  • Evident from text: the observational design cannot establish causality despite marginal structural models; the cohort was young, healthy, and predominantly Caucasian (60%), limiting generalizability to other populations.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1210/jc.2010-0702

Cites

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 33 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    After adjustment for age, race, cycle, and other sex hormones, HOMA-IR was positively associated with progesterone (β = 0.025; P < 0.001).

    “After adjustment for age, race, cycle, and other sex hormones, HOMA-IR was positively associated with estradiol (␤ ϭ 0.082; P Ͻ 0.001) and progesterone (␤ ϭ 0.025; P Ͻ 0.001), and inversely associated with FSH (adjusted ␤ ϭ Ϫ0.040; P Ͻ 0.001) and SHBG (␤ ϭ Ϫ0.085; P Ͻ 0.001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    After adjustment for age, race, cycle, and other sex hormones, HOMA-IR was inversely associated with SHBG (β = -0.085; P < 0.001).

    “After adjustment for age, race, cycle, and other sex hormones, HOMA-IR was positively associated with estradiol (␤ ϭ 0.082; P Ͻ 0.001) and progesterone (␤ ϭ 0.025; P Ͻ 0.001), and inversely associated with FSH (adjusted ␤ ϭ Ϫ0.040; P Ͻ 0.001) and SHBG (␤ ϭ Ϫ0.085; P Ͻ 0.001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingnone given

    HOMA-IR levels primarily reflected changes in insulin and not glucose.

    “HOMA-IR levels primarily reflected changes in insulin and not glucose.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Insulin exhibited minor menstrual cycle variability.

    “Insulin exhibited minor menstrual cycle variability.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    LH was not associated with HOMA-IR.

    “LH was not associated with HOMA-IR.”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “There was no association between LH and insulin or HOMA-IR.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 25
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 11

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Further adjustment for BMI weakened the association with SHBG (β = -0.057; P = 0.06) but did not affect other associations.

    “Further adjustment for BMI weakened the association with SHBG (␤ ϭ Ϫ0.057; P ϭ 0.06) but did not affect other associations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    HOMA-IR and insulin change significantly over the menstrual cycle, with levels rising before ovulation and peaking in the luteal phase.

    “Significant changes in HOMA-IR were observed over the menstrual cycle; from a midfollicular phase level of 1.35, levels rose to 1.59 during the early luteal phase and decreased to 1.55 in the late-luteal phase.”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “Statistically significant menstrual cycle variation was found for HOMA-IR and insulin levels (Fig. 1).”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · boosted
      “Our findings demonstrate that insulin and a related measure of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) change over the menstrual cycle, with levels beginning to rise before ovulation and reaching maximum levels during the luteal phase.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    No significant interaction by BMI was detected (P > 0.05), and results were similar after excluding overweight women.

    “No significant interaction by BMI was detected (P Ͼ 0.05), and results were similar after excluding overweight women (data not shown).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    SHBG was significantly inversely associated with insulin (β = -0.73; P < 0.001) and HOMA-IR (β = -0.85; P < 0.001).

    “SHBG was significantly inversely associated with insulin (␤ ϭ Ϫ0.73; P Ͻ 0.001) and HOMA-IR (␤ ϭ Ϫ0.85; P Ͻ 0.001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    We found no interaction with height and the positive association with insulin persisted regardless of height.

    “We found no interaction with height and the positive association with insulin persisted regardless of height (data not shown).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Estradiol and progesterone were positively associated with insulin and HOMA-IR, whereas FSH was negatively associated.

    “Estradiol and progesterone were positively associated with insulin and HOMA-IR, whereas FSH was negatively associated.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The patterns of HOMA-IR for cycles 1 and 2 were similar, although an overall significant increase (6%) in levels was observed during cycle 2.

    “The patterns of HOMA-IR for cycles 1 and 2 were similar, although an overall significant increase (6%) in levels was observed during cycle 2.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    We found a moderate positive association between insulin and estradiol that was consistent regardless of cycle phase.

    “We found a moderate positive association between insulin and estradiol that was consistent regardless of cycle phase, which is in line with two larger studies (26,27).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [26]

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [27]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Glucose levels decreased slightly during ovulation and into the early luteal phase but were otherwise relatively constant throughout the cycle.

    “Glucose levels decreased slightly during ovulation and into the early luteal phase but were otherwise relatively constant throughout the cycle.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Estimates remained unchanged in sensitivity analyses, excluding the potential anovulatory cycles or excluding cycles missing the last visit.

    “These estimates also remained unchanged in sensitivity analyses, excluding the potential anovulatory cycles or excluding cycles missing the last visit (data not shown).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    FSH and SHBG exhibited inverse associations with insulin and insulin resistance.

    “Moreover, both estradiol and progesterone exhibited positive associations with insulin and insulin resistance, whereas FSH and SHBG exhibited inverse associations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    After adjusting for cycle, significant differences were found between the luteal and follicular phases of HOMA-IR primarily due to higher insulin levels in the luteal phase that increased after the onset of ovulation.

    “After adjusting for cycle in the statistical models, significant differences were found between the luteal and follicular phases of HOMA-IR primarily due to higher insulin levels in the luteal phase that increased after the onset of ovulation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    HOMA-IR was positively associated with BMI and SHBG was negatively associated with BMI.

    “due to the fact that HOMA-IR was positively and SHBG was negatively associated with BMI.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Ongoing debate has surrounded the role of sex hormones on insulin resistance.

    “Ongoing debate has surrounded the role of sex hormones on insulin resistance (2,3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [2]

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [3]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Intravenous glucose measures by hyperinsulinemic clamp or other intensive techniques have been treated as the 'gold standard' methods for evaluating insulin sensitivity.

    “Intravenous glucose measures by hyperinsulinemic clamp (17) or other intensive techniques (18) have been treated as the “gold standard” methods for evaluating insulin sensitivity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [17]

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [18]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Ninety-four percent of women completed at least seven clinic visits per cycle, indicating high compliance to study protocol.

    “Ninety-four percent of women completed at least seven clinic visits per cycle, indicating high compliance to study protocol, with the main reason for fewer visits related to shorter cycle length (20).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [20]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The obesity epidemic has increased the prevalence of metabolic disorders among young, premenopausal women.

    “T he obesity epidemic has increased the prevalence of metabolic disorders among young, premenopausal women (1), who are more subject to insulin resistance.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Oral contraceptive use and menopausal hormone therapy have been found to alter insulin sensitivity.

    “Although both oral contraceptive use and menopausal hormone therapy have been found to alter insulin sensitivity (4), the effects of variations in endogenous sex hormones across the menstrual cycle on insulin sensitivity have not been clearly demonstrated.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Young, premenopausal women are more subject to insulin resistance.

    “T he obesity epidemic has increased the prevalence of metabolic disorders among young, premenopausal women (1), who are more subject to insulin resistance.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    The analysis took into account the simultaneous effects of other sex hormones on insulin measures.

    “We also further took into account the simultaneous effects of other sex hormones on these measures.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Pulsatility in the secretion of LH and progesterone may have influenced the single day representativeness of the study's measures.

    “Lastly, the pulsatility in the secretion of sex hormones LH and progesterone may have influenced the single day representativeness of our measures.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A study of premenopausal women in Norway (ages, 25-35 yr) demonstrated a positive association between daily salivary free estradiol and insulin levels, but only among women who were taller than average (>170 cm).

    “A study of premenopausal women in Norway (ages, 25-35 yr) demonstrated a positive association between daily salivary free estradiol and insulin levels, but only among women who were taller than average (Ͼ170 cm) (26).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [26]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    HOMA-IR has previously been shown to be a valid measure of insulin resistance with strong correlations with measures by euglycemic clamp and by IVGTT.

    “HOMA-IR has previously been shown to be a valid measure of insulin resistance with strong correlations with measures by euglycemic clamp and by IVGTT (22).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [22]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Our study supports the suggestion that the positive biological association between estradiol and insulin may not be altered by the reduction of estrogen levels related to the occurrence of menopausal transition, but may rather be exacerbated, perhaps, by changes in adiposity after menopause.

    “Our study supports this suggestion, that the positive biological association between estradiol and insulin may not be altered by the reduction of estrogen levels related to the occurrence of menopausal transition, but may rather be exacerbated, perhaps, by changes in adiposity after menopause.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    All measurements were timed to the LH surge using fertility monitors, decreasing the possibility of misclassification of cycle phases.

    “Moreover, all measurements were timed to the LH surge of the women's menstrual cycles using fertility monitors, decreasing the possibility of misclassification of cycle phases (20).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [20]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Two studies investigated the changes using HOMA-IR as an index for insulin resistance and found no differences across the cycle.

    “Two studies investigated the changes using HOMA-IR as an index for insulin resistance and found no differences across the cycle (7,8).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [7]

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [8]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Interassay coefficients of variation of analytes for three level quality control materials were less than 8% for insulin, less than 10% for SHBG, less than 10% for estradiol, less than 14% for progesterone, less than 4% for LH, and less than 4% for FSH at all levels.

    “Interassay coefficients of variation of analytes for three level quality control materials were less than 8% for insulin, less than 10% for SHBG, less than 10% for estradiol, less than 14% for progesterone, less than 4% for LH, and less than 4% for FSH at all levels.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The study had multiple measures in each phase of the cycle, including three LH measures around ovulation and three luteal phase progesterone measures at a standardized time of day.

    “However, we had multiple measures in each phase of the cycle, including three LH measures around the time of ovulation and three luteal phase measures of progesterone at a standardized time of day (i.e. between 0700 and 0900 h).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Our results follow what has been found for IVGTT, which may suggest that the variability rests in insulin sensitivity.

    “Our results follow what has been found for IVGTT, which may suggest that the variability rests in insulin sensitivity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Serum rather than urinary measures of sex hormones were available.

    “Serum, rather than urinary, measures of sex hormones were also available.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The variation in insulin and HOMA-IR across menstrual cycle was very small and may explain why previous studies of smaller size may not have detected significant change.

    “The variation in insulin and HOMA-IR across menstrual cycle was very small and may explain why previous studies of smaller size may not have detected significant change.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    These fluctuations across the cycle are most likely explained by the fact that insulin and HOMA-IR were positively associated with estradiol and progesterone, whereas negatively associated with FSH and SHBG.

    “These fluctuations across the cycle are most likely explained by the fact that insulin and HOMA-IR were positively associated with estradiol and progesterone, whereas negatively associated with FSH and SHBG.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    BMI partially accounted for the association between SHBG and insulin but had no influence on the other associations.

    “BMI partially accounted for the association between SHBG and insulin but had no influence on the other associations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationown data

    The small variation in insulin resistance may be of minor clinical relevance.

    “We also observed small variation in insulin resistance in this cohort of young, healthy women, which may be of minor clinical relevance.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given

    BioCycle is the largest study to date with repeated measures of insulin and glucose over two menstrual cycles.

    “BioCycle is the largest study to date with repeated measures of insulin and glucose over two menstrual cycles.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The results can only be applied to the fasting state and cannot speak to postprandial glucose metabolism.

    “Nevertheless, these results can only be applied to the fasting state and cannot speak to postprandial glucose metabolism.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
36 of 36

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Peripheral insulin sensitivity changes during the menstrual cycle, with relative peripheral insulin resistance occurring in the luteal phase compared to in the follicular phase.

    “Peripheral insulin sensitivity changes during the menstrual cycle, with relative peripheral insulin resistance occurring in the luteal phase compared to in the follicular phase29.”

    From Brain insulin action on peripheral insulin sensitivity in women depends on menstrual cycle phase (2023) · cites this paper as [29]

    The Abstract (page unavailable) reports higher HOMA-IR in the early luteal phase than in the midfollicular phase, supporting a cycle-related change in insulin resistance. But the study measured fasting insulin and glucose, not peripheral insulin sensitivity directly; the Discussion (page unavailable) also notes that clamp studies found no significant difference. The claim's specific assertion of peripheral insulin resistance is therefore not established by this study. (LLM, conf=0.86)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Fluctuations in insulin sensitivity associated with the female menstrual cycle occur due to changes in the balance between estrogen and progesterone.

    “Fluctuations in insulin sensitivity associated with the female menstrual cycle occur due to changes in the balance between estrogen and progesterone.”

    From A study of changes in insulin requirements related to the menstrual cycle in Japanese women with type 1 diabetes using the advanced hybrid closed‐loop system (2026) · cites this paper as [1]

    The Discussion reports that insulin and HOMA-IR fluctuate over the menstrual cycle and says these changes are most likely explained by their associations with estradiol and progesterone. It does not establish that a changing balance between the two hormones causes changes in insulin sensitivity; the study measured insulin resistance using HOMA-IR. (LLM, conf=0.86)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Reduced insulin sensitivity begins around ovulation and peaks during the progesterone-dominant luteal phase.

    “Reduced insulin sensitivity is known to begin around ovulation and to peak during the progesterone‐dominant luteal phase 1 , 2 .”

    From A study of changes in insulin requirements related to the menstrual cycle in Japanese women with type 1 diabetes using the advanced hybrid closed‐loop system (2026) · cites this paper as [1]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • HOMA-IR-SHBG coefficient differs tenfold from Table 3

    Major

    The Results report a HOMA-IR-SHBG coefficient of −0.85, while Table 3 gives −0.085 for model 1.

  • Insulin-SHBG coefficient differs tenfold from Table 3

    Major

    The Results report an insulin-SHBG coefficient of −0.73, while Table 3 gives −0.073 for model 1.

  • Other-race percentage does not match its count

    Minor

    Table 1 lists 13 of 257 participants as other race. That is 5.1%, not the reported 4%.

    Reported 4 · recomputed 5.058366

3 of 3

The citation lists haven’t been fetched yet

References 44 · Cited by 145

Authors
Yeung, E. H., Zhang, C., Mumford, S. L., Ye, A., Trevisan, M., Chen, L., Browne, R. W., Wactawski-Wende, J., & Schisterman, E. F.
Affiliations
  • National Institutes of Health (US)
  • University of Nevada, Las Vegas (US)
  • University at Buffalo, State University of New York (US)
Corresponding author
Schisterman, Enrique F.
ORCID
Venue
The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
Publisher
The Endocrine Society
Published
2010-12
Volume
95
Issue
12
Pages
5435-5442
ISSN
  • 0021-972X (ISSN-L)
  • 1945-7197
DOI
10.1210/jc.2010-0702
PMC
PMC2999972
OpenAlex
W2018959435
Semantic Scholar
dd54971c545ca8bd4dc0bb5b25c9940558a66bf6
Cited by
145
References
44
Citations by year
2026: 15 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 9 · 2012: 8
FWCI
7.62
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
  • National Institutes of Health
  • National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
  • Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Reproductive Medicine › Ovarian function and disorders
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes, Cardiovascular Risks, and Lipoproteins
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Estrogen and related hormone effects
Keywords
insulin resistance, menstrual cycle, sex hormones, estradiol, progesterone, luteal phase, follicular phase, HOMA-IR, premenopausal women, sex hormone-binding globulin, luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, fasting insulin
MeSH terms
Adolescent, Adult, Blood Glucose, Educational Status, Female, Fertility, Follicular Phase, Humans, Income, Insulin, Insulin Resistance, Longitudinal Studies, Luteal Phase, Menstrual Cycle, Menstruation, Body Mass Index, Premenopause, Patient Selection, Racial Groups, Young Adult

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

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