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Iodine Status and Thyroid Function of Boston-Area Vegetarians and Vegans
Open accessAbstract
CONTEXT: Adequate dietary iodine is required for normal thyroid function. The iodine status and thyroid function of U.S. vegetarians and vegans have not been previously studied. Environmental perchlorate and thiocyanate (inhibitors of thyroid iodine uptake) exposures may adversely affect thyroid function. OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to assess the iodine status and thyroid function of U.S. vegetarians (consume plant based products, eggs, milk; abstain from meat, poultry, fish, shellfish) and vegans (avoid all animal products) and whether these may be affected by environmental perchlorate and thiocyanate exposures. DESIGN AND SETTING: This was a cross-sectional assessment of urinary iodine, perchlorate, and thiocyanate concentrations and serum thyroid function in Boston-area vegetarians and vegans. SUBJECTS: One hundred forty-one subjects (78 vegetarians, 63 vegans) were recruited; one vegan was excluded. RESULTS: Median urinary iodine concentration of vegans (78.5 μg/liter; range 6.8-964.7 μg/liter) was lower than vegetarians (147.0 μg/liter; range 9.3-778.6 μg/liter) (P < 0.01). Adjusted for cigarette smoking (confirmed by urinary cotinine levels) and thiocyanate-rich food consumption, median urinary thiocyanate concentration of vegans (630 μg/liter; range 108-3085 μg/liter) was higher than vegetarians (341 μg/liter; range 31-1963 μg/liter) (P < 0.01). There were no between-group differences in urinary perchlorate concentrations (P = 0.75), TSH (P = 0.46), and free T(4) (P = 0.77). Urinary iodine, perchlorate, and thiocyanate levels were not associated with TSH (P = 0.59) or free T(4) (P = 0.14), even when adjusted for multiple variables. CONCLUSIONS: U.S. vegetarians are iodine sufficient. U.S. vegans may be at risk for low iodine intake, and vegan women of child-bearing age should supplement with 150 μg iodine daily. Environmental perchlorate and thiocyanate exposures are not associated with thyroid dysfunction in these groups.
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“The MPO enzyme uses H2O2 to oxidise chloride, bromide Br−, iodide I−, and thiocyanate SCN−, taking them to their respective hypohalogenated acids [169].”
From The Role of Reactive Species on Innate Immunity (2022) · cites this paper as [169]
In the citing paper
“At physiological pH, plasma ion concentrations are ~100 mM Cl−, 20–100 μM Br−, <1 μM I−, 20–100 μM SCN−, and MPO primarily generates HOCl and HOSCN.”
From The Role of Reactive Species on Innate Immunity (2022) · cites this paper as [169]
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“HOBr is usually formed at low concentrations, it is pH dependent, and also can be improved by food supplement [169].”
From The Role of Reactive Species on Innate Immunity (2022) · cites this paper as [169]
In the citing paper
“HOI formation is usually insignificant due to the low plasma levels of I−, although it is generated rapidly, varying significantly with diet (lower levels are detected in vegans than in vegetarians).”
From The Role of Reactive Species on Innate Immunity (2022) · cites this paper as [169]
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Hollowell, J. G., Staehling, N., Hannon, W. H., Flanders, D. W., Gunter, E. W., MABERLY, G. F., Braverman, L. E., Pino, S., Miller, D. T., Garbe, P. L., et al. (1998) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jcem.83.10.5168 · Cited by 402
Self-citationBlount, B. C., Pirkle, J. L., Osterloh, J., Valentín-Blasini, L., & Caldwell, K. L. (2006) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.9466 · Cited by 344
Goitrogenic and estrogenic activity of soy isoflavones.
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Variability of Iodine Content in Common Commercially Available Edible Seaweeds
Teas, J., Pino, S., Critchley, A. T., & Braverman, L. E. (2004) · Thyroid · doi:10.1089/thy.2004.14.836 · Cited by 279
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Becker, D. V., Braverman, L. E., Delange, F. M., Dunn, J. T., Franklyn, J. A., Hollowell, J. G., Lamm, S. H., Mitchell, M. L., Pearce, E. N., ROBBINS, J. J., et al. (2006) · Thyroid · doi:10.1089/thy.2006.16.949 · Cited by 248
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Perchlorate Exposure of the US Population, 2001–2002
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Research works printed but not linked: 2
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Stagnaro-Green, A., Abalovich, M., Alexander, E., Azizi, F., Mestman, J., Negro, R., Nixon, A., Pearce, E. N., Soldin, O. P., Sullivan, S., et al. (2011) · Thyroid · doi:10.1089/thy.2011.0087 · Cited by 2,942
Self-citationAlexander, E. K., Pearce, E. N., Brent, G. A., Brown, R. S., Chen, H., Dosiou, C., Grobman, W. A., Laurberg, P., Lazarus, J. H., Mandel, S. J., et al. (2017) · Thyroid® · doi:10.1089/thy.2016.0457 · Cited by 2,731
Self-citationPosition of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Vegetarian Diets
Melina, V., Craig, W., & Levin, S. (2016) · Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1016/j.jand.2016.09.025 · Cited by 1,360
Global Iodine Nutrition: Where Do We Stand in 2013?
Pearce, E. N., Andersson, M., & Zimmermann, M. B. (2013) · Thyroid · doi:10.1089/thy.2013.0128 · Cited by 438
Self-citationIodine and human health, the role of environmental geochemistry and diet, a review
Fuge, R., & Johnson, C. C. (2015) · Applied Geochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2015.09.013 · Cited by 349
Metadata
- Authors
- Leung, A. M., LaMar, A., He, X., Braverman, L. E., & Pearce, E. N.
- Affiliations
- Boston Medical Center (US)
- Boston University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Leung, Angela M.
- Venue
- The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
- Publisher
- The Endocrine Society
- Published
- 2011-08
- Volume
- 96
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- E1303-E1307
- ISSN
- 0021-972X (ISSN-L)
- 1945-7197
- PMC
- PMC3206519
- OpenAlex
- W2092250506
- Cited by
- 113
- References
- 25
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 2 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 3.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5k12hd043444-10)
- National Center for Research Resources (UL1RR025771)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (K23HD068552, K12-HD043444, K12HD43444)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Thyroid Disorders and Treatments
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Chemical Analysis and Environmental Impact
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Thyroid Cancer Diagnosis and Treatment
- Keywords
- iodine status, thyroid function, vegetarians, vegans, urinary iodine, perchlorate, thiocyanate, thyroid hormones, thyroid-stimulating hormone, free thyroxine, iodine intake, iodine supplementation, women of child-bearing age, Boston, environmental exposure, cigarette smoking, urinary cotinine, plant-based diet
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Boston, Cross-Sectional Studies, Environmental Exposure, Female, Humans, Iodine, Male, Middle Aged, Nutrition Disorders, Perchlorates, Risk Factors, Thiocyanates, Thyroid Gland, Diet, Vegetarian, Young Adult
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