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Initial events in exercise-induced muscular injury
Abstract
Immediately following unaccustomed exercise, particularly that with eccentric contractions, there is evidence of injury to skeletal muscle fibers: a) disruption of the normal myofilament structures in some sarcomeres, observable with both light and electron microscope and b) loss of intramuscular proteins (e.g., creatine kinase enzymes) into the plasma, indicating damage to sarcolemma. This pathology is probably responsible for the temporary reductions in muscle force and delayed-onset soreness that can occur following eccentric exercise. The mechanisms underlying this injury are not known, although loss of intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis could play a primary role. In other experimental muscle injury models, elevated [Ca2+]i appears to cause release of muscle enzymes through activation of phospholipase A2, which in turn could induce injury to sarcolemma through production of leukotrienes and prostaglandins, through free O2 radical formation (in the subsequent lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase reactions), and/or through release of detergent lysophospholipids. On the other hand, the mechanism responsible for the rapid damage to myofibrils caused by increased [Ca2+]i is unknown. Regardless of the cause(s), the initial and early events in the injury process are autogenetic; i.e., they are indigenous to the muscle cells and occur before phagocytic cells enter the injury site.
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“If repeated multiple times, eccentric contractions are a useful tool to induce a physiologically-relevant injury to skeletal muscle, resulting in damage to the contractile apparatus and loss of function (2, 3).”
From Phytoecdysteroids Accelerate Recovery of Skeletal Muscle Function Following in vivo Eccentric Contraction-Induced Injury in Adult and Old Mice (2021) · cites this paper as [2]
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BackgroundROS Scavenging Activity and Muscle Damage Prevention in Eccentric Exercise in Rats
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Repeated maximal eccentric actions causes long-lasting disturbances in movement control
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“The induced injury to the sarcolemma is supported by the production of leukotrienes and prostaglandins through free reactive oxygen species (ROS) and/or release of detergent-like lysophospholipids (Armstrong, 1990; Kendall and Eston, 2002).”
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“Although absent after 2 hours, this inflammatory response would be expected to be well underway after 24 hours (4) and, as such, represents the most likely explanation for the secondary decline in neuromuscular performance observed.”
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Lésions musculaires induites par l'exercice et surentraınement
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“It is likely that the second decline in neuromuscular performance is attributed to the postexercise inflammatory response to muscle damage that may yet not be initiated during the initial recovery period but is underway between 11 and 22 hours (6).”
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“Exercise often involves high intensity physical and physiological stress that ultimately results in structural damage to the skeletal muscle (Armstrong, 1990; Armstrong et al., 1991; Clarkson and Sayers, 1999; Proske and Morgan, 2001; Proske and Allen, 2005).”
BackgroundChanges in Fatigue Recovery and Muscle Damage Enzymes after Deep-Sea Water Thalassotherapy
Kim, N.-I., Kim, S.-J., Jang, J.-H., Shin, W., Eum, H.-J., Kim, B., Choi, A., & Lee, S.-S. (2020) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app10238383 · Cited by 18
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“it could be expected that the BBPs are likely to have alterations in iron metabolism and hematological parameters because: (a) training and competition require a higher physical condition and (b) repeated hand strikes to the ball involve continuous mechanical trauma against the hand palm. The competition increases and…”
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“The damage and loss of function have been attributed to a number of mechanisms, including: disruptions in sarcolemmal integrity (Armstrong, 1990; McNeil & Khakee, 1992; McBride, 2003; Lovering & De Deyne, 2004); z-band streaming and sarcomere disruption (Friden et al.”
BackgroundDelayed-onset muscle injury and its modification by wheat gluten hydrolysate
Koikawa, N., Nakamura, A., Ngaoka, I., et al. (2009) · Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.nut.2008.11.001 · Cited by 17
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“Since EIMD changes the contractile properties of muscle (Armstrong, 1990), this may account for differences between our studies.”
ResultEffects of sensory-level high-volt pulsed electrical current ondelayed-onset muscle soreness
Tourville, T. W., Connolly, D., & Reed, B. V. (2006) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640410500357226 · Cited by 17
“A generally accepted model of the events following exercise-induced muscle damage has been proposed by Armstrong and colleagues (Armstrong, 1990; Armstrong, Warren, & Warren, 1991).”
BackgroundInfluentialStretch‐Shortening Cycle Fatigue and its Influence on Force and Power Production
Nicol, C., & Komi, P. V. (2003) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470757215.ch11 · Cited by 17
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Ninfali, P., Baronciani, L., Bardoni, A., & Bresolin, N. (1995) · Clinical Genetics · doi:10.1111/j.1399-0004.1995.tb04095.x · Cited by 16
“In fact, this may be drawn simply by including the value of the RBC activity in the equation of the best fit regression line. On the basis of recent discoveries regarding the metabolism of muscle cell, it is possible to speculate on the mechanism by which deficiency of G6PD may cause symptoms like muscle weakness, mya…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialUpdate on Pressure Ulcer Management and Deep Tissue Injury
Mao, C. L., Rivet, A. J., Sidora, T., et al. (2010) · Annals of Pharmacotherapy · doi:10.1345/aph.1m315 · Cited by 16
Oxidative state and histological changes in muscles of mastication after conditioning training
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Streptomycin and EDTA decrease the number of desmin‐negative fibers following stretch injury
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“treated; and (3) untreated control rats.”
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Short-term Influences of Lung Volume Reduction Surgery on the Diaphragm in Emphysematous Hamsters
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“It is likely that diaphragm force generating capacity would be even further curtailed by Day 4 after LVRS based on enhanced ultrastructural abnormalities noted and well-established literature in which injury and force deficit peak 3–4 days after the insult ( 41 ).”
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“In intact skeletal muscle, PLA2 activation has been implicated in the effects of contraction-induced muscle damage (2, 26) and long-term fatigue (34).”
BackgroundEffects of food restriction on antioxidant defense system in exercised rats
Venkatraman, J. T., Angkeow, P., & Fernandes, G. (1998) · Nutrition Research · doi:10.1016/s0271-5317(98)00021-9 · Cited by 13
Muscle degeneration in aging Drosophila flies: the role of mechanical stress
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Grounding after moderate eccentric contractions reduces muscle damage
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“However, the neutrophils of the secondary invasion appear to produce more ROS than the first group of neutrophils and are possibly responsible for additional damage.(16,28,35,41,46,48) The production of ROS released by the neutrophils initially aids in healing, but secondary neutrophils and the ROS they produce may be…”
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Preventative Strategies for Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage
Weerapong, P., Hume, P. A., & Kolt, G. S. (2004) · Critical Reviews in Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine · doi:10.1615/critrevphysrehabilmed.v16.i2.40 · Cited by 12
Serum Creatine Kinase Elevation in a Medical Department
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“As common as DOMS is, little is known regarding the specific cellular mechanisms that induce muscle soreness (1, 2).”
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“If repeated multiple times, eccentric contractions are a useful tool to induce a physiologically-relevant injury to skeletal muscle, resulting in damage to the contractile apparatus and loss of function (2, 3).”
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“…sessions can intensify muscle damage, while insufficient recovery time leads to cumulative strain, such as increased sarcolemma permeability and Ca 2+ dysregulation (Armstrong, 1984; Armstrong, 1990; Gulick and Kimura, 1996; Hamill et al., 1991; Vila-Chã et al., 2023; Yates and Armbruster, 1990).”
Myogenic marker expression as a function of age and exercise-based therapy in the tongue
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“However, upregulation of SC markers in the SG and HG following our exercise program suggests this form of exercise is sufficient in sustaining a more severe muscle injury and in provoking a SC response in the SG and HG muscles, due to its intensity and perhaps unfamiliarity (Armstrong, 1990).”
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“These results may be explained by the influence of ROS production on the etiology of muscle damage through ion transport system oxidation (Kourie, 1998), as oxidative stress can lead to the release of muscle constituents to blood, such as CK and LDH (Armstrong, 1990; Taghiyar et al., 2013).”
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Can Anthocyanins Reduce Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness or Are We Barking Up the Wrong Tree?
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“However, the most explored theory assumes that DOMS is caused by mechanical damage to skeletal muscle tissue after an exercise stimulus (Armstrong, 1990; Hotfiel et al., 2018).”
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Muscle pain induced by novel eccentric exercise does not disturb the sleep of normal young men
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“Although inflammation and degradation of damaged tissue also stimulate protein synthesis [12,13], the net protein turnover status is mostly determined by catabolic events during post-exercise recovery [14,15].”
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“The innate immune system can also induce secondary muscle damage through the generation of reactive oxygen species, further attenuating athletic performance (2,3,10).”
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“An increase in muscle acidosis leads to the greater fragility of the muscle fibers and subsequently to a higher risk of muscle injury [52,53].”
BackgroundCold-Water Immersion Has No Effect on Muscle Stiffness After Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage
Pinto, J. V. F., Rocha, P., & Torres, R. (2018) · Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine · doi:10.1097/jsm.0000000000000682 · Cited by 7
“However, metabolic muscle disturbance cannot be excluded and, certainly, explains part of the mechanism related to EIMD.(14,15) The elevation in muscle temperature, insufficient mitochondrial respiration, lowered pH, and free radical production lead to both Na-K-ATPase and Ca21 -ATPase pump dysfunction, resulting in l…”
BackgroundMatos, F., FERREIRA, B. A., Guedes, J. C., et al. (2018) · The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000002941 · Cited by 7
“In addition, this factor prevents the production of ATP to support muscle contractions (1).”
BackgroundHata, J., Endo, K., Tsuji, O., et al. (2019) · Journal of Orthopaedic Science · doi:10.1016/j.jos.2019.01.016 · Cited by 7
EGZERSİZE BAĞLI İSKELET VE KALP KASI HASARI
Hazar, S. (2004) · Ankara Üniversitesi Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Yüksekokulu SPORMETRE Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi · doi:10.1501/sporm_0000000141 · Cited by 7
“Normalden daha kısa olan motor üniteler eksantrik kasılmada daha fazla uzamak zorunda kaldıklarından kopmalar meydana gelmektedir.(15)”
BackgroundKerkweg, U., & de GROOT, H. (2005) · Shock · doi:10.1097/01.shk.0000176185.89793.05 · Cited by 7
“of cytoskeletal elements and other substrates, and mitochondrial dysfunction, including the formation of reactive oxygen species (35), are frequently discussed in literature.”
BackgroundThe course of exercise-induced skeletal muscle fibre injury
Komulainen, J., & Vihko, V. (1998) · Birkhäuser Basel eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-0348-8958-2_4 · Cited by 7
ASPIRIN MAY BE AN EFFECTIVE TREATMENT FOR EXERCISE-INDUCED MUSCLE SORENESS
Riasati, S., Moghadasi, M., Torkfar, A., Shirazinejad, R., & Arvin, H. (2010) · Redalyc (Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México) · Cited by 6
Skeletal muscle elastic modulus in marathon distance runners
Winn, B., Haight, D. J., Williams, D. S. B., & Kirby, B. S. (2025) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-025-05708-2 · Cited by 6
“This is often attributed to the high volume of negative external work resulting from repeated high force eccentric muscle contractions accrued over the marathon distance (Cavagna et al. 1964; Luhtanen and Komi 1978; Armstrong 1990; Allen 2001; Proske and Morgan 2001).”
Rachmawati, M. R., Tulaar, A. B., Immanuel, S., Purba, A., Mansyur, M., Haryadi, R. D., Hadisoebroto, I., Husni, A., & Ibrahim, N. (2016) · Anatomy & Cell Biology · doi:10.5115/acb.2016.49.1.15 · Cited by 6
“Microstructure of the muscle cells will be changed after 5–15 minutes at the muscles activity [12-14].”
BackgroundAlfredo, P. P., Anaruma, C. A., Pião, A. C. S., et al. (2008) · Fisioterapia e Pesquisa · doi:10.1590/s1809-29502008000300010 · Cited by 6
Reitzner, S. M., Norrbom, J., Sundberg, C. J., & Gidlund, E. (2018) · Physiological Reports · doi:10.14814/phy2.13624 · Cited by 5
“This structural damaging is known to be caused by the lengthening of muscle fibers under tension and associated with inflammation and damage to muscle proteins and the sarcoplasmic reticulum (Newham et al. 1987; Armstrong 1990; Frid en and Lieber 2001; MacNeil et al. 2010).”
BackgroundStewart, N. T., Foss, M., Carraro, U., et al. (1997) · Journal of Equine Veterinary Science · doi:10.1016/s0737-0806(97)80528-x · Cited by 6
Barbosa, T. M., Magalhães, P. M., Lopes, V. P., et al. (2003) · Revista Portuguesa de Ciências do Desporto · doi:10.5628/rpcd.03.01.07 · Cited by 6
Effects of Vicoprofen® and Ibuprofen on Anaerobic Performance after Muscle Damage
Kraemer, W. J., Gómez, A. L., Ratamess, N. A., et al. (2002) · Journal of Sport Rehabilitation · doi:10.1123/jsr.11.2.104 · Cited by 5
D’Antona, G. (2013) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/56590 · Cited by 5
“[5] Armstrong RB.”
Metadata
- Authors
- BEN KIBLER, C. W., & ARMSTRONG, R. B.
- Affiliations
- University of Georgia (US)
- Venue
- Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise
- Published
- 1990-08
- Volume
- 22
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 429???435
- ISSN
- 0195-9131 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2052579376
- Cited by
- 457
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 17 · 2012: 21
- FWCI
- 8.87
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (2s07rr007025-26, 7r01am037098-01)
- National Center for Research Resources (S07RR-07025-21)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Exercise and Physiological Responses
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Muscle Physiology and Disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Surgery › Muscle and Compartmental Disorders
- Keywords
- exercise-induced muscle damage, eccentric exercise, sarcomere disruption, myofibril damage, creatine kinase release, delayed onset muscle soreness, intracellular calcium homeostasis, phospholipase A2, leukotrienes, prostaglandins, free radical generation, lysophospholipids
- MeSH terms
- Calcium, Free Radicals, Homeostasis, Humans, Hydrogen-Ion Concentration, Mechanoreceptors, Mitochondria, Muscle, Muscle Contraction, Muscles, Sarcolemma, Sprains and Strains, Exercise
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