The DOI matches its Crossref record; 55 of the 57 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The Nature of Credit Constraints and Human Capital
Abstract
We develop a human capital model with borrowing constraints explicitly derived from government student loan (GSL) programs and private lending under limited commitment. The model helps explain the persistent strong positive correlation between ability and schooling in the United States, as well as the rising importance of family income for college attendance. It also explains the increasing share of undergraduates borrowing the GSL maximum and the rise in student borrowing from private lenders. Our framework offers new insights regarding the interaction of government and private lending, as well as the responsiveness of private credit to economic and policy changes. (JEL D14, H52, I22, I23, J24)
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Citations
Cites
Becker, G. S. (1983) · Cited by 6,708
The Production of Human Capital and the Life Cycle of Earnings
Ben-Porath, Y. (1967) · Journal of Political Economy · doi:10.1086/259291 · Cited by 2,646
Changes in the Wage Structure and Earnings Inequality
Katz, L. F., & Autor, D. (1999) · Handbook of labour economics · doi:10.1016/s1573-4463(99)03007-2 · Cited by 2,085
The Evidence on Credit Constraints in Post‐Secondary Schooling
Carneiro, P., & Heckman, J. J. (2002) · The Economic Journal · doi:10.1111/1468-0297.00075 · Cited by 1,042
Cameron, S. V., & Heckman, J. J. (1998) · Journal of Political Economy · doi:10.1086/250010 · Cited by 1,017
Manski, C. F., & Wise, D. A. (1983) · Harvard University Press eBooks · doi:10.4159/harvard.9780674422285 · Cited by 977
The Dynamics of Educational Attainment for Black, Hispanic, and White Males
Cameron, S. V., & Heckman, J. J. (2001) · Journal of Political Economy · doi:10.1086/321014 · Cited by 911
Does Income Inequality Lead to Consumption Inequality? Evidence and Theory1
Krueger, D., & Perri, F. (2006) · The Review of Economic Studies · doi:10.1111/j.1467-937x.2006.00373.x · Cited by 895
Debt-Constrained Asset Markets
Kehoe, T. J., & Levine, D. K. (1993) · The Review of Economic Studies · doi:10.2307/2298103 · Cited by 874
Heckman, J. J., Lochner, L., & Taber, C. R. (1998) · Review of Economic Dynamics · doi:10.1006/redy.1997.0008 · Cited by 842
Self-citation
Research works printed but not linked: 5
- Berkner Lutz K, 2000, Federal Student Loans in, 1989, 1992
- Cameron Stephen V, 1999, Financing College Tuition: Government policies and Educational priorities, ed. Marvin H. Kosters, 76
- Cawley John, 2000, K. Arrow, S. Bowles and S. Durlauf, 230
- Ellwood David T, 2000, Securing the Future: Investing in Children from Birth to College, ed. Sheldon Danziger and Jane Waldfogel, 283
- Titus Marvin A, 2002, Federal Student Loans in, 1989, 1992
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–200 of 337
Does expansion of higher education lead to trickle-down growth?
Böhm, S., Grossmann, V., & Steger, T. M. (2015) · Journal of Public Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2015.09.011 · Cited by 17
Hotz, V. J., Wiemers, E., Rasmussen, J., & Maxwell, K. (2018) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w25144 · Cited by 17
The effect of intergenerational mobility on family education investment: evidence from China
Zhao, N., Liao, W., Xia, J., & Zhang, Z. (2023) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-023-02077-z · Cited by 16
Human capital acquisition and occupational choice: Implications for economic development
Mestieri, M., Schauer, J., & Townsend, R. M. (2017) · Review of Economic Dynamics · doi:10.1016/j.red.2017.02.001 · Cited by 16
A Day Late and a Dollar Short: Liquidity and Household Formation among Student Borrowers
Goodman, S. F., Isen, A. M., & Yannelis, C. (2018) · Finance and Economics Discussion Series · doi:10.17016/feds.2018.025 · Cited by 16
Credit Constraints and the Racial Gap in Post-Secondary Education in South Africa
Lam, D., Ardington, C., Branson, N., & Leibbrandt, M. (2013) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w19607 · Cited by 16
Matching in the Dark? Inequalities in student to degree match
Campbell, S., Macmillan, L., Murphy, R., & Wyness, G. (2021) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w29215 · Cited by 16
Job Search under Debt: Aggregate Implications of Student LoansPreprint
Ji, Y. (2017) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2976040 · Cited by 16
Tuition, Debt, and Human CapitalPreprint
Chakrabarti, R., Fos, V., Liberman, A., & Yannelis, C. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3532593 · Cited by 16
EARLY CHILDHOOD HEALTH AND SCHOOLING ATTAINMENT GAPS WITHIN AND ACROSS COUNTRIES
Miller, R. (2018) · Macroeconomic Dynamics · doi:10.1017/s1365100518000500 · Cited by 15
In Debt and Alone? Examining the Causal Link between Student Loans and Marriage
Gicheva, D. (2012) · Cited by 15
The Impact of Parental Wealth on College Degree Attainment: Evidence from the Housing Boom and Bust
Johnson, R. C. (2020) · AEA Papers and Proceedings · doi:10.1257/pandp.20201110 · Cited by 15
Lergetporer, P., & Woessmann, L. (2023) · Journal of Public Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2023.104968 · Cited by 16
College Student Debt and Anticipated Repayment Difficulty
Fox, J., Bartholomae, S., Letkiewicz, J. C., & Montalto, C. P. (2017) · Journal of Student Financial Aid · doi:10.55504/0884-9153.1576 · Cited by 15
Graduates, Dropouts and Slow Finishers: The Effects of Credit Constraints on University Outcomes
Cardak, B. A., & Vecci, J. (2015) · Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics · doi:10.1111/obes.12119 · Cited by 15
A Dynamic Model of Health, Education, and Wealth with Credit Constraints and Rational AddictionPreprint
Hai, R., & Heckman, J. J. (2015) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2688384 · Cited by 15
Parental Resources and College Attendance: Evidence from Lottery Wins
Bulman, G. B., Fairlie, R. W., Goodman, S. F., & Isen, A. M. (2016) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w22679 · Cited by 15
ProPelled: The Effects of Grants on Graduation, Earnings, and Welfare
Denning, J. T., Marx, B., & Turner, L. (2017) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w23860 · Cited by 15
ProPelled: The Effects of Grants on Graduation, Earnings, and Welfare
Denning, J. T., Marx, B., & Turner, L. J. (2017) · doi:10.17848/wp17-280 · Cited by 15
MISMATCH IN HUMAN CAPITAL ACCUMULATION
Cooper, R., & Liu, H. (2019) · International Economic Review · doi:10.1111/iere.12386 · Cited by 14
University Tuition Fees and High School Students' Educational Intentions
Bahrs, M., & Siedler, T. (2018) · Fiscal Studies · doi:10.1111/1475-5890.12185 · Cited by 14
Why Brazil fell behind in college education?
Binelli, C., & Menezes-Filho, N. A. (2019) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2019.04.007 · Cited by 14
Testing for Educational Credit Constraints Using Heterogeneity in Individual Time Preferences
Cowan, B. (2016) · Journal of Labor Economics · doi:10.1086/683644 · Cited by 14
Optimal Income, Education, and Bequest Taxes in an Intergenerational Model
Stantcheva, S. (2015) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w21177 · Cited by 14
Educational InequalityPreprint
Blanden, J., Doepke, M., & Stuhler, J. L. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4114801 · Cited by 15
Changes in the College Mobility Pipeline Since 1900
Bleemer, Z., & Quincy, S. (2025) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w33797 · Cited by 14
College Quality and Attendance Patterns: A Long-Run View
Hendricks, L., Herrington, C., & Schoellman, T. (2020) · American Economic Journal Macroeconomics · doi:10.1257/mac.20190154 · Cited by 15
Opportunity Unraveled: Private Information and the Missing Markets for Financing Human Capital
Herbst, D., & Hendren, N. (2021) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.20211653 · Cited by 13
Optimal education policies under endogenous borrowing constraints
Wang, M. (2013) · Economic Theory · doi:10.1007/s00199-013-0743-5 · Cited by 13
Navarro, S., & Zhou, J. (2017) · Review of Economic Dynamics · doi:10.1016/j.red.2017.01.011 · Cited by 13
The U‐Shape of Income Inequality over the 20th Century: The Role of Education*
Klaus Prettner, A., & Schaefer, A. (2020) · Scandinavian Journal of Economics · doi:10.1111/sjoe.12424 · Cited by 13
Wealth Trajectories Across Key Milestones: Longitudinal Evidence from Life-Course Transitions
Goda, G. S., & Streeter, J. L. (2021) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w28329 · Cited by 13
The Consequences of Student Loan Credit Expansions: Evidence from Three Decades of Default Cycles
Looney, A., & Yannelis, C. (2019) · Working paper · doi:10.21799/frbp.wp.2019.32 · Cited by 13
Mastering the transition: A synthetic literature review of trade adaptation policies
Grundke, R., & Arnold, J. (2022) · OECD Economics Department working papers · doi:10.1787/5fad3487-en · Cited by 13
Factors affecting college attainment and student ability in the U.S. since 1900
Donovan, K., & Herrington, C. (2018) · Review of Economic Dynamics · doi:10.1016/j.red.2018.07.003 · Cited by 12
Liquidity Constraints, Fiscal Externalities and Optimal Tuition Subsidies
Lawson, N. (2017) · American Economic Journal Economic Policy · doi:10.1257/pol.20150079 · Cited by 12
The Value and Risk of Human Capital
Benzoni, L., & Chyruk, O. (2015) · Annual Review of Financial Economics · doi:10.1146/annurev-financial-110613-034406 · Cited by 12
The College Premium, College Noncompletion, and Human Capital InvestmentPreprint
Athreya, K. B., & Eberly, J. C. (2013) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2227096 · Cited by 12
An Experiment on Information Use in College Student Loan Decisions
Darolia, R. (2016) · Working paper · doi:10.21799/frbp.wp.2016.18 · Cited by 12
Inequality in Human Capital and Endogenous Credit ConstraintsPreprint
Hai, R., & Heckman, J. J. (2016) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2757881 · Cited by 12
PLUS or Minus? The Effect of Graduate School Loans on Access, Attainment, and Prices
Black, S., Turner, L., & Denning, J. T. (2023) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w31291 · Cited by 12
Credit Scores and College InvestmentPreprint
Ionescu, F. A., & Simpson, N. B. (2010) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 11
Accounting for Tuition Increases Across U.S. CollegesPreprint
Gordon, G., & Hedlund, A. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3720860 · Cited by 11
Impact of Credit Constraints from Formal Financial Institutions on Rural Residents’ Health in China
Yang, F., Jiang, Y., & Paudel, K. P. (2020) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare9010006 · Cited by 10
Intergenerational Linkages in Household Credit
Ghent, A. C., Kudlyak, M., & Francisco, F. R. B. O. S. (2016) · Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco, Working Paper Series · doi:10.24148/wp2016-31 · Cited by 10
Cáceres-Delpiano, J., Giolito, E., & Castillo, S. (2015) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.02.003 · Cited by 10
Cash-on-Hand & College Enrollment: Evidence from Population Tax Data and Policy Nonlinearities
Dayanand Manoli, Y., & Turner, N. (2014) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w19836 · Cited by 10
The Option Value of Human Capital
Lee, D., Yoon, S. H., & Shin, Y. (2014) · 2012 Meeting Papers · Cited by 9
Should we transfer resources from college to basic education?
Hidalgo‐Hidalgo, M., & Iturbe-Ormaetxe, I. (2011) · Journal of Economics · doi:10.1007/s00712-011-0208-x · Cited by 9
Explaining Intergenerational Mobility: The Role of Fertility and Family Transfers
Daruich, D., & Kozlowski, J. (2018) · doi:10.20955/wp.2018.011 · Cited by 9
Designing Efficient College and Tax PoliciesPreprint
Findeisen, S., & Sachs, D. (2015) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2655120 · Cited by 10
Finance and Productivity: A Literature Review
Heil, M. (2019) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119565178.ch6 · Cited by 9
Intergenerational Mobility and Credit
Braxton, J. C., Chikhale, N., Herkenhoff, K., & Phillips, G. M. (2024) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w32031 · Cited by 9
The Influence of Students’ Loans Borrowers’ Characteristics on Default Rate in Tanzania
Nyahende, V. R. (2013) · Higher Education Studies · doi:10.5539/hes.v3n4p26 · Cited by 8
Credit constraints in higher education in a context of unobserved heterogeneity
Rojas, E., Sánchez, R. M., & Villena, M. G. (2016) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2016.03.004 · Cited by 8
THE AFFORDABLE CARE ACT AND COLLEGE ENROLLMENT DECISIONS
Jung, J., & Shrestha, V. (2018) · Economic Inquiry · doi:10.1111/ecin.12578 · Cited by 8
Credit cycles, human capital and the distribution of income
Kubin, I., & Zörner, T. O. (2019) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2019.02.022 · Cited by 8
The evolution of the US family income–schooling relationship and educational selectivity
Belzil, C., & Hansen, J. (2020) · Journal of Applied Econometrics · doi:10.1002/jae.2785 · Cited by 8
Wang, S., & Zheng, L. (2024) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su16103986 · Cited by 7
A failure of the market for college education and on-the-job human capital
Balmaceda, F. (2021) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2021.102165 · Cited by 7
Childcare Subsidies and Child Skill Accumulation in One- and Two-Parent Families
Moschini, E. (2022) · American Economic Journal Macroeconomics · doi:10.1257/mac.20200282 · Cited by 7
ENDOGENOUS BORROWING CONSTRAINTS AND WEALTH INEQUALITY
Bhattacharya, J., Qiao, X., & Wang, M. (2016) · Macroeconomic Dynamics · doi:10.1017/s1365100514000959 · Cited by 7
The LeChatelier principle for changes in risk
Nocetti, D. C. (2013) · Journal of Mathematical Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jmateco.2013.05.006 · Cited by 7
Borrowing Smarter or Borrowing More? Investigating the Effects of a Change in Federal Loan Policy
Lee, J. C., Ciarimboli, E. B., Rubin, P. G., & Canché, M. S. G. (2019) · The Journal of Higher Education · doi:10.1080/00221546.2019.1650583 · Cited by 7
Student Loans and Social MobilityPreprint
Ebrahimian, M. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3680159 · Cited by 7
Income Contingency and the Electorate's Support for Tuition
Lergetporer, P., & Woessmann, L. (2022) · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4011508 · Cited by 7
Macroeconomic Effects of ‘Free’ Secondary Schooling in the Developing World
Fujimoto, J., Lagakos, D. P., & VanVuren, M. (2023) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w31029 · Cited by 7
Luo, Z., Abbasi, B. N., & Sohail, A. (2024) · Journal of the Knowledge Economy · doi:10.1007/s13132-024-02269-1 · Cited by 6
Does digital financial inclusion promote intergenerational income mobility? Evidence from China
Yang, J., Lu, D., & Shi, J. (2025) · Finance research letters · doi:10.1016/j.frl.2025.107637 · Cited by 6
Inequality and Household Consumption: The Role of Intergenerational Support
Hu, X., Wei, J., Xu, C., & Zhang, L. (2025) · China & World Economy · doi:10.1111/cwe.12607 · Cited by 6
THE ROLE OF EDUCATION SIGNALING IN EXPLAINING THE GROWTH OF THE COLLEGE WAGE PREMIUM
Zheng, Y. (2017) · Macroeconomic Dynamics · doi:10.1017/s1365100517000232 · Cited by 6
Students’ Growth Mindset: Potential Asset in Fostering Educational Equity
Ayoola, F. W., & Ibrahim, A. (2024) · Asian Journal of Education and Social Studies · doi:10.9734/ajess/2024/v50i61429 · Cited by 6
Catalysts for Social Insurance: Education Subsidies vs. Real Capital Taxation
Schindler, D., & Yang, H. (2010) · International Tax and Public Finance · doi:10.1007/s10797-014-9309-0 · Cited by 6
Jacobs, B., & Yang, H. (2015) · International Tax and Public Finance · doi:10.1007/s10797-015-9357-0 · Cited by 6
Parental Credit Constraints and Child College Attendance
Ringo, D. R. (2018) · Education Finance and Policy · doi:10.1162/edfp_a_00259 · Cited by 6
The Changing Role of Family Income in College Selection and Beyond
Leukhina, O. (2023) · doi:10.20955/r.105.198-222 · Cited by 5
Life in Shackles? The Quantitative Implications of Reforming the Educational Loan System
Heijdra, B. J., Kindermann, F., & Reijnders, L. S. M. (2014) · Review of Economic Dynamics · doi:10.1016/j.red.2017.02.006 · Cited by 5
On the Distribution of College Dropouts: Wealth and Uninsurable Idiosyncratic RiskPreprint
Ozdagli, A. K., & Trachter, N. (2011) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1799734 · Cited by 5
Understanding Permanent Black-White Earnings InequalityPreprint
Badel, A. (2010) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1699807 · Cited by 5
Student Loans and Repayment: Theory, Evidence and Policy
Monge‐Naranjo, A., & Lochner, L. (2014) · doi:10.20955/wp.2014.040 · Cited by 5
Self-citationThe Causal Effects of Youth Cigarette Addiction and Education
Hai, R., & Heckman, J. J. (2022) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w30304 · Cited by 5
The Impact of Racial Segregation on College Attainment in Spatial Equilibrium
Gregory, V., Kozlowski, J., & Rubinton, H. (2022) · doi:10.20955/wp.2022.036 · Cited by 5
The limited impact of free college policies
Ferreyra, M. M., Garriga, C., Martin-Ocampo, J. D., & Díaz, A. M. S. (2024) · European Economic Review · doi:10.1016/j.euroecorev.2024.104800 · Cited by 4
Public overspending in higher education
Brotherhood, L., Delalibera, B. R., & Pereira, L. T. D. M. (2022) · Bulletin of Economic Research · doi:10.1111/boer.12372 · Cited by 4
Post-compulsory education: Participation and politics
Anderberg, D. (2012) · European Journal of Political Economy · doi:10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2012.10.006 · Cited by 4
de Mello, J. M. P., & Duarte, I. F. (2020) · Economía · doi:10.1353/eco.2020.0000 · Cited by 4
Occupational choice, human capital and financial constraints
Castro, R., & Ševčík, P. (2024) · Canadian Journal of Economics/Revue canadienne d économique · doi:10.1111/caje.12721 · Cited by 4
Ionescu, F. A., & Ionescu, M. (2014) · Finance and Economics Discussion Series · doi:10.17016/feds.2014.14 · Cited by 4
DO STUDENT LOAN BORROWERS OPPORTUNISTICALLY DEFAULT? EVIDENCE FROM BANKRUPTCY REFORM
Darolia, R., & Ritter, D. (2015) · Working paper · doi:10.21799/frbp.wp.2015.17 · Cited by 4
Insuring Student Loans Against the Financial Risk of Failing to Complete College
Chatterjee, S., & Ionescu, F. A. (2012) · Working paper · doi:10.21799/frbp.wp.2012.15 · Cited by 4
Estimating the Value of Higher Education Financial Aid: Evidence from a Field Experiment
Belzil, C., Maurel, A., & Sidibé, M. (2017) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w23641 · Cited by 4
Human Capital Risk, Contract Enforcement, and the Macroeconomy
Krebs, T., Kuhn, M., & Wright, M. L. J. (2011) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w17714 · Cited by 4
The Knowledge TaxPreprint
Simkovic, M. (2015) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2551567 · Cited by 5
Sources of rising student debt in the U.S.: College costs, wage inequality, and delinquency
Kim, H.-J., & Kim, J. H. (2025) · Review of Economic Dynamics · doi:10.1016/j.red.2025.101318 · Cited by 3
Educational Aid Policy and Inequality: The Case for Merit- and Need-Based Aid
Hadavand, A. (2017) · Review of Social Economy · doi:10.1080/00346764.2018.1525760 · Cited by 3
Subsidizing heterogeneous higher education systems
Hatsor, L., & Zilcha, I. (2020) · Journal of Public Economic Theory · doi:10.1111/jpet.12487 · Cited by 3
Under-insurance in human capital models with limited enforcement
Krebs, T., Kuhn, M., & Wright, M. L. J. (2017) · Review of Economic Dynamics · doi:10.1016/j.red.2017.02.008 · Cited by 3
Is Working in College Worth It? How Hours on the Job Affect Postsecondary Outcomes
Davis, A. M. D. (2023) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/01623737231210243 · Cited by 5
Optimism about Graduation and College Financial Aid
Moschini, E., Raveendranathan, G., & Xu, M. (2026) · American Economic Journal Macroeconomics · doi:10.1257/mac.20230303 · Cited by 3
SWITCHING REGRESSION ESTIMATES OF THE INTERGENERATIONAL PERSISTENCE OF CONSUMPTION
Guo, S. (2014) · Economic Inquiry · doi:10.1111/ecin.12094 · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- Lochner, L. J., & Monge-Naranjo, A.
- Affiliations
- Western University (CA)
- Department of Economics, Pennsylvania State University, 502 Kern Graduate Building, University Park, PA, 16802-3306.
- ORCID
- Lochner, Lance J
- Venue
- American Economic Review
- Publisher
- American Economic Association
- Published
- 2011-10-01
- Volume
- 101
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 2487-2529
- ISSN
- 0002-8282 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2141338042
- Cited by
- 347
- References
- 57
- Citations by year
- 2026: 22 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 28 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 22 · 2017: 32 · 2016: 31 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 32 · 2013: 17 · 2012: 19
- FWCI
- 118.92
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Economic Review (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Higher Education Research Studies
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Finance › Financial Literacy, Pension, Retirement Analysis
- Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
- Keywords
- credit constraints, human capital, student loans, private lending, limited commitment, college attendance, household income, private credit, education funding
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
