From Media Literacy to AI Literacy: Developing Students’ Critical Digital Judgment in Higher Education

May combine two claims.

Students used AI tools for academic support, but their understanding of reliability, authorship, algorithmic influence, and responsible use was uneven.

“These themes show that although students used AI tools for academic support, their understanding of reliability, authorship, algorithmic influence, and responsible use remained uneven.”

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Thematic analysis of interviews with 22 social science students in Punjab, Pakistan produced five themes: media literacy as fact-checking, trust in AI for convenience, difficulty identifying AI-generated content, uncertainty about ethical AI use, and need for practical classroom guidance.

“The data were analysed through thematic analysis, which generated five themes: media literacy as fact-checking, trust in AI for convenience, difficulty identifying AI-generated content, uncertainty about ethical AI use, and the need for practical classroom guidance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Students' learning experiences depend on search engines, social media filters, recommendation algorithms, and AI-generated answers.

“The learning experiences of the students are dependent upon search engines, social media filters, recommendation algorithms, and AI-generated answers.”

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Students' trust in AI coexists with distrust because they knew AI might give false and untrustworthy information.

“Nevertheless, this trust comes with an element of distrust since the students were aware that AI might provide false and untrustworthy information.”

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The analysis identified five categories: media literacy as simple fact-checking, trust in AI due to convenience, inability to identify AI-generated information, ethical issues related to AI application, and guidance required in class settings.

“There have been identified five categories of results: Media literacy as simple fact-checking, trust in AI due to convenience, inability to identify AI-generated information, ethical issues related to AI application, and guidance required in class setting, see Figure 2.”

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Some students were unsure whether AI use is ethical, unethical, or cheating, while others equated AI use with checking spelling and grammar or searching the internet.

“While some students might feel unsure about whether the use of AI can be ethical, unethical, or even cheating, other students might believe that using AI is equivalent to checking spelling and grammar or conducting searches on the Internet.”

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Students used AI for tasks such as summarizing readings, improving language, generating ideas, translating texts, and completing assignments.

“Students could apply AI for tasks such as summarizing reading materials, improving language proficiency, developing creative ideas, translating texts, and completing assignments.”

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Students recognized the importance of accuracy or authenticity but did not understand media literacy broadly enough.

“Of course, it was obvious from this finding that the students realized the importance of accuracy or authenticity but could not understand media literacy broadly enough.”

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Students' movement from media literacy to AI literacy is uneven, incomplete, and marked by uncertainty.

“The results indicate that students' transition from media literacy to AI literacy is neither even nor complete and that it involves a certain level of uncertainty.”

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Interviewees reported using AI to brainstorm, summarize texts, correct grammar, translate, create presentations, and grasp complex topics.

“Specifically, the interviewees mentioned using AI to brainstorm ideas, summarize texts, correct grammar, translate language, create presentations, and grasp complex topics.”

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Students showed skepticism about AI tools' effectiveness and reliability even while acknowledging their convenience.

“Such information revealed some skepticism toward the effectiveness and reliability of such tools, even though students acknowledged them as convenient solutions.”

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Students' understanding of media literacy was limited to fact-checking, while their AI use was shaped by convenience, uncertainty, and a lack of clear guidance.

“Their understanding of media literacy was limited to fact-checking, while their use of AI was shaped by convenience, uncertainty, and a lack of clear guidance.”

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Students are active users of digital media and generative AI, but they do not always have the critical tools needed to evaluate AI-mediated information.

“overall, the findings suggest that students are active users of digital media and generative AI, but they do not always have the critical tools needed to evaluate AI-mediated information.”

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One group of students saw AI tools as grammar-checking or internet-searching tools, while another group saw them as an unethical way to complete assignments or write papers.

“The first group of students perceived AI tools as a tool for checking grammar or searching the internet, while the second group viewed such applications as an unethical way of completing assignments or writing papers.”

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Students said AI technologies could provide inaccurate information, unverifiable answers, or questionable suggestions.

“They stated that AI technologies could provide inaccurate information, unverifiable answers, or questionable suggestions.”

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Students can use AI for convenience, efficiency, and study assistance, but they may struggle to check AI-generated information's validity, spot fake media, understand platform impact, and make ethical decisions about AI.

“Students can use AI out of convenience, efficiency, and need assistance in studies; however, it can be difficult for them to check the validity of AI-generated information, spot fake media, comprehend the impact of platforms on media communication and make decisions about the ethical use of AI.”

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Students used generative AI because it was fast, available, and useful for academic purposes.

“another interesting finding was that students employed AI generative technologies due to their speediness, availability, and utility for academic purposes.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Some interviewees noted that AI-generated content lacked accuracy.

“At the same time, some interviewees pointed out the lack of accuracy of AIgenerated content.”

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Young people actively use networked technologies but still need to learn privacy, credibility, identity, and effective participation in digital environments.

“D. Boyd (Boyd, 2014) notes that young people actively used networked technologies, but still needed to learn such concepts as privacy, credibility, identity, and effective participation in digital environments.”

• cites Boyd, 2014Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

AI literacy consists of components including knowledge about AI technologies and their application, evaluation of technologies, and consideration of ethical problems associated with their use.

“AI literacy consists of several components, including knowledge about AI technologies and their application, evaluation of technologies, and the consideration of ethical problems associated with their use.”

• cites Ng et al., 2021Not checked yet

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AI-generated content can appear fluent and convincing while containing inaccuracies, biases, and irrelevant information.

“although AI-generated content appears fluent and convincing, it may contain inaccuracies, biases, and irrelevant information.”

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AI has become an inseparable part of the university learning environment, although its pedagogical potential remains poorly recognized.

“artificial intelligence becomes an inseparable part of the learning environment at universities, even though its pedagogical potential is still poorly recognized (Zawacki-Richter et al., 2019).”

• cites Zawacki-Richter et al., 2019Not checked yet

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The study's sample was small and did not represent all university students.

“The first limitation is that the sample size used in the study was not only small but also not representative of all university students.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

All interview materials were handled discreetly and properly secured.

“All interview materials were handled discreetly and properly secured.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

AI literacy consists of four competencies: understanding, engaging with, evaluating, and reflecting about AI and ethics-related issues.

“D.T.K. Ng et al. (Ng et al., 2021) posit that AI literacy consists of four competencies that include understanding, engaging with, evaluating, and reflecting about AI and ethics-related issues associated with technology.”

• cites Ng et al., 2021Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Media literacy goes beyond verification and includes representation, production of messages, consumption of messages, ideologies, and power relations.

“However, media literacy goes beyond just verification, and includes such aspects as representation, production of messages, consumption of messages, ideologies, and power relations (Buckingham, 2003).”

• cites Buckingham, 2003Not checked yet

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No extraneous personal data was collected.

“No extraneous personal data was collected during this research process.”

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With generative AI, the process of creation becomes associated with collaboration with machines.

“With the advent of generative AI, the process of creation becomes associated with collaboration with machines.”

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Although students see themselves as advanced users of modern technologies, they still need training to develop critical judgment.

“Although students consider themselves advanced users of modern technologies, they still need some training which would foster the development of their critical judgment skills.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Large language models can assist in learning and creativity, but using these systems requires consideration of reliability, transparency, and educational purposes.

“large language models can assist in learning and creativity, but using these systems requires the consideration of factors like reliability, transparency, and educational purposes.”

• cites Kasneci et al., 2023Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Thematic analysis is a flexible technique for identifying and reporting themes in data.

“thematic analysis refers to a flexible technique that enables one to identify and report on themes in data.”

• cites Braun, Clarke, 2006Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

AI literacy involves the need for individuals to gain skills in understanding, criticizing, and applying artificial intelligence.

“AI literacy involves the need for individuals to gain skills regarding understanding, criticizing, and applying artificial intelligence (Long, Magerko, 2020).”

• cites Long, Magerko, 2020Not checked yet

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The investigation adhered to established ethical standards for research with human subjects.

“the investigation adhered to the established ethical standards of conducting research with human subjects.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Credibility was enhanced by maintaining thorough documentation of the coding process and theme identification.

“The second is maintaining thorough documentation of the coding process and theme identification.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The analysis was both inductive and conceptually informed, open to participant themes while guided by the critical digital judgment framework.

“The analysis was both inductive and conceptually informed.It remained open to themes emerging from participants' responses, but it was also guided by the conceptual framework of critical digital judgment developed in this article.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Critical digital judgment can be seen as a link between media literacy and AI literacy.

“The main value of the current paper lies in suggesting that critical digital judgment can be regarded as a link between these two domains of literacy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Educational institutions must build the human capacity needed to work with generative AI.

“it is emphasized that educational institutions must build the human capacity needed to work with generative AI.”

• cites Miao, Holmes, 2023Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The exploratory approach was appropriate because generative AI use by students is still emerging and can be affected by individual, organizational, and sociocultural factors.

“As the use of generative AI by students is still emerging and can be impacted by various individual, organizational, and sociocultural factors, the exploratory approach helped address this issue appropriately.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Data saturation was achieved as new data began to show repetitive patterns.

“Data saturation was achieved as new data started to exhibit repetitive patterns.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

For AI-mediated interactions, media literacy should address circulation, emotional impact, spectacle, and trust, not only individual fact-checking.

“media literacy should deal not only with individual capacities for checking facts but also with larger issues of circulation, emotional impact, spectacle, and trust (Mihailidis, Viotty, 2017;Wardle, Derakhshan, 2017).”

• cites Mihailidis, Viotty, 2017Not checked yet

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• cites Wardle, Derakhshan, 2017Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

AI literacy should include awareness of how AI-driven algorithms affect how students see, think, and communicate.

“AI literacy should necessarily include the awareness of how AI-driven algorithms affect the way students see, think, and communicate.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Critical digital judgment involves four interconnected skills: source judgment, algorithmic judgment, ethical judgment, and creative judgment.

“Such judgment implies having the following four interconnected skills.First, the students have to be able to make source judgments.Second, they have to be able to make algorithmic judgments.Third, they need to form ethical judgments in their decision-making related to AI.Finally, they need to develop creative judgments as they apply AI in educational contexts.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Credibility was enhanced by incorporating extracts from respondents' answers into the findings.

“The third strategy is incorporating certain extracts from respondents' answers into the findings.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Informed consent was obtained before interviews.

“Informed consent was received before conducting the interviews.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Thematic analysis was suitable because it enabled identification, organization, and interpretation of patterns of meaning in qualitative data.

“The use of thematic analysis was suitable for this research since it would enable the identification, organisation, and interpretation of patterns of meaning in the qualitative data.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Floridi and Chiriatti emphasize that ethical issues raised by generative AI applications such as GPT concern our ability to distinguish between machine and human production and its implications for understanding and responsibility.

“Floridi and Chiriatti emphasize that ethical issues raised by generative AI applications, such as GPT, concern our ability to distinguish between machine and human production and its implications for our understanding and responsibility.”

• cites Floridi and ChiriattiNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Participants were briefed about study goals, voluntary status, and freedom to leave before data analysis.

“All participants were briefed regarding the goals of the study, their voluntary status, and freedom to leave the process anytime before analyzing the collected data.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Critical digital judgment can reconcile media literacy issues with AI literacy issues, including representation, reliability, and interpretation.

“critical digital judgment will help reconcile media literacy issues with AI literacy ones, including the questions of representation, reliability, and interpretation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Because the study concerned academic conduct and AI use, interviews avoided accusing participants of unethical behavior and focused on understanding, experiences, dilemmas, and educational needs.

“it was imperative not to accuse participants of unethical behavior.On the contrary, interviews centered on the subject matter in terms of their understanding, experiences, dilemmas, and need for education.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Participant names and institutional affiliations were not included in the published article; pseudonyms or codes were used.

“Names of participants or their institutional affiliations were not included in the published article.Instead, they were identified by using pseudonyms or participant codes like P1, P2, and P3.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Semi-structured interviews were well-suited to investigating novel educational issues such as students' awareness of AI-generated information.

“Semistructured interviews were well-suited to investigating novel issues in education, including students' awareness of AI-generated information.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The study relied on student self-reports, which may not accurately capture their practices.

“Second, the data used in this study was based on self-reporting by the students, which may not accurately capture their practices.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

AI literacy includes awareness, utilization, evaluation, and consideration of AI ethics.

“AI literacy includes awareness, utilization, evaluation, and consideration of AI ethics.”

• cites Ng et al., 2021Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Media literacy covers not only fact-checking but also representation, production, ideology, audiences, and power relations.

“media literacy deals not only with issues related to checking facts but also includes questions concerning representation, production, ideology, audiences, and power relations (Buckingham, 2003).”

• cites Buckingham, 2003Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Credibility was enhanced by matching interview questions with research questions and the conceptual framework.

“The first strategy is matching the interview questions with the research questions and the conceptual framework.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Creative judgment assists in maintaining academic voice among students in higher education.

“Creative judgment assists in maintaining academic voice among students in higher education institutions.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The blurry border between assistance and authorship makes creative judgment crucial.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The sample size of 22 was ideal for a qualitative study because it allowed rich data while keeping analysis manageable.

“This sample size was ideal for conducting a qualitative experiment because it allowed for gathering rich data yet provided a manageable scope of analysis.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Credibility in thematic analysis can be achieved by documenting the coding process, engaging in reflexivity, and being transparent in moving from data to themes.

“credibility in thematic analysis can be achieved by documenting the coding process, engaging in reflexivity, and being transparent in going from data to themes.”

• cites Nowell et al., 2017Not checked yet

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UNESCO guidance on generative AI in education and research emphasizes the need for a human-centred, ethical, and regulated approach to AI use in education.

“The UNESCO guidance on generative AI in education and research provides an understanding of the necessity of taking a human-centred, ethical, and regulated approach towards AI usage in education (Miao, Holmes, 2023).”

• cites Miao, Holmes, 2023Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Creating media content has been an essential component of media literacy throughout its history.

“Creating media content has been an essential component of media literacy throughout its history (Hobbs, 2010).”

• cites Hobbs, 2010Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Platform society helps recognize the role platforms play in shaping public values such as privacy, precision, safety, fairness, and responsibility.

“it helps recognize the role played by platforms when shaping public values such as privacy, precision, safety, fairness, and responsibility (van Dijck et al., 2018).”

• cites van Dijck et al., 2018Not checked yet

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In generative AI, considering author, source, purpose, and evidence remains relevant but becomes harder than in media literacy classes.

“While previously, in media literacy classes, it was stressed for students to consider the author, source, purpose, and evidence, these points continue to be relevant, but in the case of generative AI, they become harder to consider.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

AI literacy includes the ability to critically evaluate AI technologies and products.

“AI literacy includes the ability to critically evaluate AI technologies and products.”

• cites Long, Magerko, 2020Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Semi-structured interviews were chosen because they allowed adherence to a question set while giving participants room to elaborate.

“This type of interview was chosen since it enabled the researcher to adhere to an already established question set but still gave the participants room to elaborate on their opinions freely.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Reflexivity was maintained throughout the study regarding personal assumptions.

“Finally, reflexivity is maintained throughout the study regarding personal assumptions, especially since both AI literacy and media literacy are emerging subjects in education.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Because generative AI technology changes quickly, student opinions and institutional policies may change over time.

“Third, due to the fact that the field of generative AI technology is fast evolving, there is a possibility that the opinions held by students and policy adopted by institutions might shift over time.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Thematic analysis was justified despite its flexibility because it can be used systematically.

“The use of thematic analysis was also justified in this research due to the flexible nature of the approach despite taking a systematic approach to qualitative data (Braun, Clarke, 2021).”

• cites Braun, Clarke, 2021Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Students need to learn to make ethical decisions related to the use of technology.

“This strengthens the argument that students need to learn to make ethical decisions related to the use of technology.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

AI literacy should be treated as an expansion of media literacy rather than as a fully independent literacy domain.

“Thus, the current article suggests treating AI literacy not as something that stands by itself and as a fully independent literacy domain but as an expansion of media literacy.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Media literacy is already sufficiently developed to address credibility, authorship, representation, audience, and power.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: AI literacy raises more issues related to automation, data, algorithms, synthetic content, and human responsibility than media literacy does.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

AI-generated information can be misleading, biased, unverifiable, and unethical even when it appears persuasive and credible.

“even though it may be persuasive and credible, AI-generated data can be misleading, biased, unverifiable, and unethical.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Critical digital judgment emerged as a connecting factor between media literacy and AI literacy and entails source, algorithmic, ethical, and creative judgment.

“Critical digital judgment emerged as a connecting factor between media literacy and AI literacy, and this judgment entails several interrelated factors: source judgment, algorithmic judgment, ethical judgment, and creative judgment.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Systematic pedagogical support is needed.

“This is why there is a need for systematic pedagogical support.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Developing critical digital judgment among students is imperative.

“In other words, the development of critical digital judgment among students becomes imperative.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Evaluation is a key component of AI literacy along with knowing and using AI.

“D.T.K. Ng et al. (Ng et al., 2021) emphasize the importance of evaluation as one of the key components of AI literacy along with knowing and using AI.”

• cites Ng et al., 2021Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Synthetic media undermines authorship and verifiability, which makes it relevant to media literacy.

“This issue is particularly relevant to media literacy because synthetic media undermines the very premise of authorship and verifiability.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

AI literacy should be developed on the basis of media literacy.

“According to the authors, AI literacy should be developed based on media literacy.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Media literacy is already sufficiently developed to address credibility, authorship, representation, audience, and power.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: AI literacy raises more issues related to automation, data, algorithms, synthetic content, and human responsibility than media literacy does.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The evolution from media literacy to AI literacy should be seen as a pedagogical process, not as a substitution.

“The paper offers an important contribution to media literacy in emphasizing the fact that the evolution from media literacy to AI literacy should be seen as part of a pedagogical process and not as a substitution.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The study's findings from a small, non-representative sample are sufficient to ground pedagogical implications for higher education.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

AI literacy involves evaluating technologies in terms of their effectiveness.

“D. Long and B. Magerko (Long, Magerko, 2020) argue AI literacy involves evaluating technologies in terms of their effectiveness.”

• cites Long, Magerko, 2020Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Students need ethical reasoning in addition to technical skills when using AI tools in learning.

“This conclusion is consistent with UNESCO's recommendations since students require ethical reasoning in addition to technical skills when using AI tools in the learning process.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The difficulty of identifying AI content makes it necessary to develop algorithmic literacy.

“Such an issue makes it necessary to develop algorithmic literacy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Higher education should move beyond basic media literacy and develop AI literacy as part of critical digital education.

“These findings provide a basis for arguing that higher education should move beyond basic media literacy and develop AI literacy as part of critical digital education.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The study's findings from a small, non-representative sample are sufficient to ground pedagogical implications for higher education.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Students need to understand that digital content is created by algorithms, recommendation systems, design, and other mechanisms rather than in a vacuum.

“Students need to understand that digital content was not created in a vacuum but by algorithms, recommendation systems, design, and other mechanisms.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

UNESCO recommendations stress responsible and human-centred approaches to implementing AI in educational institutions.

“The UNESCO recommendations for generative AI use in education and research highlight the importance of responsible and human-centred approaches to implementing artificial intelligence in educational institutions (Miao, Holmes, 2023).”

• cites Miao, Holmes, 2023Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Media literacy skills alone are no longer sufficient; students must learn to critically reflect on media content and on the digital technologies and AI systems behind messages.

“there is still place for developing media literacy skills, but these skills alone do not suffice any longer.Instead, students must learn to critically reflect on both media content and the digital technologies and artificial intelligence systems behind the generation of these messages.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Media literacy is the crucial basis, and AI literacy builds on it to address challenges from generative AI, automation, and algorithmic communication.

“Media literacy acts as the crucial basis; AI literacy builds on media literacy to address the challenges posed by generative AI, automation, and algorithmic communication.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Media literacy is already sufficiently developed to address credibility, authorship, representation, audience, and power.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: AI literacy raises more issues related to automation, data, algorithms, synthetic content, and human responsibility than media literacy does.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

AI literacy should be taught in classes rather than discussed only in policy contexts.

“This research reveals that AI literacy should be taught in classes instead of being discussed only in the context of policies.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Academic integrity in the AI era should not be limited to prohibiting AI use; students need guidance on transparency, ownership, responsibility, and collaboration.

“These questions indicate that academic integrity in the era of AI should not be confined to prohibiting AI usage; rather, students must receive guidance on the role of transparency, ownership, responsibility, and collaboration.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Students should understand that fluent AI responses cannot be treated as valid answers because they may contain factual errors, personal bias, omitted information, or false references.

“Students should comprehend that fluent responses cannot be taken as valid answers since they can contain factual errors, personal bias, omitted information, or false references.”