The DOI matches its Crossref record; 28 of the 28 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Approaches to learning, need for cognition, and strategic flexibility among university students.
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Considerable research has described students' deep and surface approaches to learning. Other research has described individuals' self-regulated learning and need for cognition. There is a need for research examining the relationships among these constructs. AIMS: This study explored relationships among approaches to learning (deep, surface), need for cognition, and three types of control of learning (adaptive, inflexible, irresolute). Theory suggested similarities among the deep approach, need for cognition, and adaptive control (aspects of self-regulated learning); and among surface, inflexible, and irresolute control (aspects of an ineffective approach to learning). One-factor and two-factor models were proposed. SAMPLE: Participants were 226 Canadian military college students. METHOD: Participants completed the following questionnaires: the Study Process Questionnaire (Biggs, 1978), the Need for Cognition Scale (Cacioppo & Petty, 1982), and the Strategic Flexibility Questionnaire (Cantwell & Moore, 1996). RESULTS: Confirmatory factor analysis supported the identification of the six scale factors. Second order confirmatory factor analysis indicated three factors representing constructs underlying these factors. CONCLUSIONS: Neither the one- nor two-factor models accounted adequately for the data. Self-regulated learning was defined by measures of the deep approach to learning, need for cognition, and adaptive control of learning. The second factor divided into one factor consisting of irresolute control, the surface approach, and negative need for cognition; and another consisting of inflexible and negative adaptive control. Substantial relationships among scales support the need for further theory development.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Related to NFC, prior behavioral studies have reported that students with lower NFC have a tendency to prefer learning strategies characterized by surface rather than deep learning (e.g., Evans et al., 2003; Sandra and Otto, 2018), or lack engagement in cognitively demanding learning activities (e.g., Gärtner et al., 2021).”
From Retrieval Practice Is Effective Regardless of Self-Reported Need for Cognition - Behavioral and Brain Imaging Evidence (2022) · cites this paper as Evans et al., 2003
In the citing paper
“Moreover, Gonthier and Roulin (2020) further provide evidence that individuals with lower levels of working memory capacity and NFC are more inclined to use less effective learning strategies given the task at hand (see also Evans et al., 2003 for related findings).”
From Retrieval Practice Is Effective Regardless of Self-Reported Need for Cognition - Behavioral and Brain Imaging Evidence (2022) · cites this paper as Evans et al., 2003
Citations
Cites
Alternative Ways of Assessing Model Fit
Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1992) · Sociological Methods & Research · doi:10.1177/0049124192021002005 · Cited by 27,200
Hu, L.-T., & Bentler, P. M. (1998) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.3.4.424 · Cited by 12,298
Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry
Flavell, J. H. (1979) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.34.10.906 · Cited by 11,282
Power analysis and determination of sample size for covariance structure modeling.
MacCallum, R. C., Browne, M. W., & Sugawara, H. M. (1996) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.1.2.130 · Cited by 10,418
Evaluating the use of exploratory factor analysis in psychological research.
Fabrigar, L. R., Wegener, D. T., MacCallum, R. C., & Strahan, E. J. (1999) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.4.3.272 · Cited by 9,587
Motivational processes affecting learning.
Dweck, C. S. (1986) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.41.10.1040 · Cited by 6,971
Cacioppo, J. T., & Petty, R. E. (1982) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.42.1.116 · Cited by 5,359
ON QUALITATIVE DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING: I—OUTCOME AND PROCESS*
Marton, F., & Säljö, R. (1976) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1976.tb02980.x · Cited by 4,748
The Efficient Assessment of Need for Cognition
Cacioppo, J. T., Petty, R. E., & Feng Kao, C. (1984) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa4803_13 · Cited by 2,913
Educational measurement, 3rd ed.
Linn, R. L. (1989) · Cited by 2,858
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–175 of 175
A phenomenographic study of students' conception of learning for a written examination
Edström, D. W., Wilhemsson-Macleod, N., Berggren, M., Josephson, A., & Wahlgren, C. (2015) · International Journal of Medical Education · doi:10.5116/ijme.5513.0eec · Cited by 6
Open-book tests assessed: quality, learning behaviour test time and performance
Heijne-Penninga, M. (2011) · Tijdschrift voor Medisch Onderwijs · doi:10.1007/s12507-011-0025-9 · Cited by 6
Jikamshi, M. H., Abdullah, M. C., Roslan, S. B., & Ismail, H. (2016) · Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences · doi:10.5901/mjss.2016.v7n4p165 · Cited by 5
Schumacher, A., Kammerer, Y., Scharinger, C., Gottschling, S., Hübner, N., Tibus, M., Kasneci, E., Appel, T., Gerjets, P. H., & Bardach, L. (2025) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1177/08902070241309124 · Cited by 9
“Surprisingly, intellectual curiosity and personal interest did not predict information-seeking pro fi le membership, which contrasts with prior research that relied on self-reported adaptive learning behavior (e.g., Dan & Todd, 2014; Evans et al., 2003) and the results of Study 1.”
Adams, J., & Mabusela, M. S. (2014) · Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences · doi:10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n15p289 · Cited by 5
Who is playing that wonderful music? Exploring predictors of playing a musical instrument
Treger, S. (2018) · Psychology of Music · doi:10.1177/0305735618816178 · Cited by 4
“Although self-control is associated with learning to play an instrument (albeit this research has focused on children’s learning), curiosity, and NFC (Evans et al., 2003; McPherson & Renwick, 2001; Miksza, 2012; Sansone & Thomas, 2005), no direct test of the role of self-control in learning to play music exists to my…”
BackgroundReza, M., & Yoon, D. (2021) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3411764.3445190 · Cited by 4
“would not be confused or overwhelmed by learning tasks” [13].”
BackgroundThe principle of procreative beneficence and its implications for genetic engineering
Gantsho, L. (2022) · Metamedicine · doi:10.1007/s11017-022-09585-0 · Cited by 4
“Contrarily, intelligence is correlated with an increased need for cognition [12].”
BackgroundDispositions towards learning: the importance of epistemic attributes for postgraduate learners
Spray, E., Holbrook, A., Scevak, J., & Cantwell, R. (2023) · Studies in Graduate and Postdoctoral Education · doi:10.1108/sgpe-03-2022-0026 · Cited by 5
Learning approaches adopted by Indian medical students during distance learning
Bhuria, M., Mangalesh, S., Dudani, S., & Malik, A. (2021) · BLDE University Journal of Health Sciences · doi:10.4103/bjhs.bjhs_104_20 · Cited by 4
“[11] A surface learner classically tries to do as little work as possible to pass the course.”
Thomas, B. J., & Khalil, T. (2022) · Eurasian studies in business and economics · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-94672-2_3 · Cited by 4
Gurney, L. (2015) · Cited by 4
Furst, L. N. (2011) · SUNScholar (Stellenbosch University) · Cited by 4
Tucker, T. (2008) · ThinkIR: The University of Louisville's Institutional Repository (University of Louisville) · doi:10.18297/etd/1466 · Cited by 4
Chan, Y. K. R. (2010) · Leicester Research Archive (University of Leicester) · Cited by 4
Han, S., Liu, M., Cai, Y., & Shao, P. (2025) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-025-09731-w · Cited by 3
“Other researchers have also perceived that NFC is related to in-depth approaches to learning and an understanding of an individual’s mental dispositions (Evans et al., 2003 ).”
Malaj, A., Zaim, S., Bayyurt, N., & Tarım, M. (2023) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su151813838 · Cited by 3
“Moreover, individuals with a strong need for cognition demonstrate the ability to connect new and existing knowledge and acquire new information in a flexible and effective manner [67].”
Al-Abed, A. S., & Alshaara’, I. (2012) · An-Najah University Journal for Research - B (Humanities) · doi:10.35552/0247-026-009-004 · Cited by 3
Cognitive and motivational variables that shape academic learning: A preliminary study
Paloș, R., Drobot, L., Costea, I., & Munteanu, A. (2013) · Cited by 3
Writing approaches of student teachers of English
Karabınar, S. (2014) · doi:10.17263/jlls.88957 · Cited by 3
Aljaberi, N. M., & gheith, E. M. (2014) · Research on humanities and social sciences · Cited by 3
The convergent and discriminant validity of the need for cognition
Trogrlić, A., & Vasić, A. (2009) · Psihologija · doi:10.2298/psi0902173t · Cited by 3
État des lieux des comportements proactifs en contexte professionnel
Chaume, F., Gilibert, D., & Sauvezon, C. (2019) · Pratiques Psychologiques · doi:10.1016/j.prps.2019.02.001 · Cited by 3
Ability and Responsibility: Need for Cognition and Study Habits in Academic Achievement.
Hawthorne, M. J., Cooper, A., Chavis, K., Burrell, T., & Evans, C. (2021) · Research in higher education journal · Cited by 3
Dispositional and situational predictors of confirmatory behavior in the employment interview
Florea, L. (2007) · MOspace Institutional Repository (University of Missouri) · doi:10.32469/10355/4754 · Cited by 3
A Path Analysis of Learning Approaches, Personality Types and Self-Efficacy
AYDEMİR, M., & Arlı, N. B. (2022) · Contributions to economics · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-85254-2_17 · Cited by 2
Evolution of Strategic Flexibility and Decision Making Process: A Conceptual Framework
Sunayana, & Parveen, R. (2019) · Asian Journal of Managerial Science · doi:10.51983/ajms-2019.8.1.1354 · Cited by 2
Preliminary psychometric characteristics of the critical thinking self-assessment scale
Nair, G. G. (2011) · HARVEST (University of Saskatchewan) · Cited by 2
Motivation, Cultural Values, Learning Processes, and Learning in Chinese Students
Ouyang, L., Hutchinson, N. L., Kirby, J. R., Cheng, L., & Bergin, D. A. (2009) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e628752009-001 · Cited by 2
“Evans, Kirby, and Fabrigar (2003) reviewed the aforementioned theories concerning self-regulation and pointed out that these theories suggested that there were similarities among the deep approach, need for cognition, and adaptive control (aspects of self-regulated learning); and similarities among…”
BackgroundWu, C. (2013) · UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) · Cited by 2
Schumacher, A., Kammerer, Y., Scharinger, C., Gottschling, S., Hübner, N., Tibus, M., Kasneci, E., Appel, T., Gerjets, P. H., & Bardach, L. (2024) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/6djkr · Cited by 2
BİLGİÇ, E. N. Ü., & Danışman, Ş. (2023) · International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education · doi:10.29333/iejme/13712 · Cited by 1
“Adopting a deep approach to learning will enhance their awareness about learning processes (Evans et al., 2003).”
BackgroundChiesi, F., Primi, C., BILGIN, A. A. B., López, M. V., & Fabrizio, M. D. C. (2014) · Florence Research (University of Florence) · Cited by 1
Assessing Engineering Student Attitudes about Cognition Due to Project-Based Curriculum
Plumlee, D. G. (2020) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--17515 · Cited by 1
Moore, L. A. (2015) · Arrow - TU Dublin (Technological University Dublin) · Cited by 1
Al-Alwan, A. F., Ashraah, M. M., & ALnabrawi, I. M. (2013) · Cited by 1
Al-Shamaileh, N. (2014) · Gifted and Talented International · doi:10.1080/15332276.2014.11678433 · Cited by 1
Demystifying Learner Success: Before, During, and After a Massive Open Online Course
Wang, Y. (2017) · doi:10.7916/d84b3cqt · Cited by 2
النجار, ح. ز. ا. (2019) · مجلة كلية التربية جامعة بنها · doi:10.21608/jfeb.2019.100869 · Cited by 1
Peterson, B. K. (2010) · The Scholarship East Carolina University's Institutional Repository (East Carolina University) · Cited by 1
An instrument to measure the approach to learning for assessment in economics
Tang, T., & Robinson, T. (2009) · QUT ePrints (Queensland University of Technology) · Cited by 1
Rovers, S. F. E. (2020) · Research Publications (Maastricht University) · doi:10.26481/dis.20200916sr · Cited by 1
Student dispositions towards learning: A cross-sectional analysisPreprint
Spray, E., Holbrook, A., Scevak, J., & Cantwell, R. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1440345/v1 · Cited by 1
Too High to Innovate: Recreational Marijuana Legalization and Innovative ProductivityPreprint
Chen, J., Tang, N., Hsieh, P.-F., & Lin, C.-Y. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4482703 · Cited by 1
Investigating insensitivity to prior probabilities in merger and acquisition decision making
Mcgaughan, J. (2021) · Scholars Archive - University at Albany (University at Albany, State University of New York) · doi:10.54014/kfbj-g9v2 · Cited by 1
Modelling the process of learning in economics
Tang, T., & Robinson, T. (2009) · QUT ePrints (Queensland University of Technology)
A study of learning in economics
Tang, T. (2008) · QUT Business School
It’s all about that post; opportunities and challenges of sharing information online
Aguirre, E. (2015) · Research Publications (Maastricht University) · doi:10.26481/dis.20150626ea
Hawkins, C. A., Heyne, Z., & Caudill, A. (2014)
Assessment of Student Writing: Undergraduate Research Abstracts
Keller, J. A., Phillips, H., & Moseley, E. (2014)
Academic Self-Concept and Learning Decision of Undergraduates
Wang, C.-C., Chen, B. H., & Chen, C. (2011) · International journal of intelligence technologies and applied statistics · doi:10.6148/ijitas.2011.04.02.08
satisfaction with problem-based learning? Do learning approaches of medical students affect their
Gürpınar, E., Kulaç, E., Tetik, C., Akdoğan, I., & Mamaklı, S. (2015)
VIDEO PROMPTS FOR SELF-REGULATED LEARNING: METACOGNITION AND REFLECTION ACTIVITY
Sedgley, J. L. (2015) · The Mathematics Enthusiast
Measurement and characterisation of individual differences in need for cognition.
Ling, M. T. Y. (2016)
Al-Mohammadi, A. S. (2016) · Journal of Educational & Psychological Sciences · doi:10.12785/jeps/170410
A Concept Analysis of Flexibility in the Menopause Care
由紀子, 飯. (2008) · Journal of Japan Academy of Nursing Science · doi:10.5630/jans.28.3_43
السید, ن. م. م. (2021) · تکنولوجيا التعليم سلسلة دراسات وبحوث · doi:10.21608/tesr.2021.151612
Mahlangu, P. P. (2008) · UpSpace Institutional Repository (University of Pretoria)
Learning Self-regulated L2 WritingUnder a Cognitive Model
Dutta, E. A. M. M. G. (2021) · Türk bilgisayar ve matematik eğitimi dergisi · doi:10.17762/turcomat.v12i4.526
A phenomenographic study of students' conception of learning for a written examination
Desiree, W. E., Wilhemsson-Macleod, N., Berggren, M., Josephson, A., & Wahlgren, C. (2015) · International Journal of Medical Education · doi:10.5116/ijme.5521.a49f
Yang, S., & Pu, R. (2022) · International Journal of Mobile and Blended Learning · doi:10.4018/ijmbl.302241
Cognitive and Affective Factors in Relation to Learning
(2022) · Frontiers research topics · doi:10.3389/978-2-83250-498-7 · Cited by 1
Approach to learning for assessment in economics
Tang, T. (2023) · Economic Analysis and Policy · doi:10.1016/j.eap.2023.04.005
تطوير نظام ساند: مقترح لروبوت محادثة عربي لدعم استراتيجيات التعلم المعرفية وما وراء المعرفية.
الدخني, د. أ. أ. م., & المصطفى, د. س. ص. (2023) · بحوث عربية فى مجالات التربية النوعية · doi:10.21608/raes.2023.305995
Ayala, F. J. (2023) · Digital Repository Service (Northeastern University) · doi:10.17760/d20623251
Predicting Consumers’ Usage Intention Towards User-Generated Content: A Hybrid SEM-ANN Approach
Mathur, S., Tewari, A., Shrivastava, A. K., Verma, V. C., Vishnoi, S. K., & Sharma, P. (2024) · Journal of Information & Knowledge Management · doi:10.1142/s0219649224501065
Culver, K. C., & Katsumoto, S. (2024) · Journal of The First-Year Experience & Students in Transition · doi:10.65005/154230724839124122
L2 Learners' and L2 Teachers' Stated L2 Beliefs
Gabillon, Z. (2007) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/c3d35bc1z70abz4bc9z8fdezb1895ae951bc
Narwal, P., & Rai, S. (2026) · European Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1108/ejm-09-2025-0775
Zhang, X., Zhang, J., & Shen, C. (2026) · Design Studies · doi:10.1016/j.destud.2026.101423
Grubbs, T. M., Perez, O. D. R., Ehardt, Z. N., & Soares, J. S. (2026) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2026.2727403
“…also expect these findings to persist even when material is restudied, as willingness to engage cognitively also predicts engagement in the type of challenging, engaged study strategies expected to promote effective learning (Cazan & Indreica, 2014; Evans et al., 2003; Weissgerber et al., 2018).”
Aerts, E., Lavrijsen, J., Preckel, F., & Verschueren, K. (2026) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2026.102995
Metadata
- Authors
- Evans, C. J., Kirby, J. R., & Fabrigar, L. R.
- Affiliations
- Queen's University (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Kirby, John R.
- Venue
- British Journal of Educational Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2003-12
- Volume
- 73
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 507-528
- ISSN
- 0007-0998 (ISSN-L)
- 2044-8279
- OpenAlex
- W2042471163
- Cited by
- 174
- References
- 28
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 17.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- British Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Library and Archives Canada (Government of Canada) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Evaluation of Teaching Practices
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Keywords
- learning methods, deep learning, surface learning, need for cognition, strategic flexibility, student self-regulation, adaptive control, university students, military cadets, Study Process Questionnaire, Need for Cognition Scale, factor structure
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Cognition, Female, Humans, Learning, Male, Middle Aged, Surveys and Questionnaires, Students, Universities
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
