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Cited by 2Historical and Architectural StudiesPacific and Southeast Asian StudiesArchaeological and Geological Studies

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 19 of the 21 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 50 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.

Kukuipahu: A Unique Hawaiian Monumental Structure Utilizing Cut-and-Dressed Stone Masonry

Open access
Kirch, Patrick V., Carpenter, Alan, Ruggles, Clive·2019·Rapa Nui Journal
DOI 10.1353/rnj.2019.0000
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Abstract

Although common in other islands of Eastern Polynesia, cut-and-dressed masonry is exceedingly rare in Hawai'i.This article describes a significant exception, Kukuipahu Heiau, a monumental structure in the Kohala district, Hawai'i Island, which incorporates more than one hundred cut-and-dressed basalt slabs, as well as worked red scoria blocks.There appear to have been at least two construction phases, with an earlier phase utilizing the worked stone, followed by a destructive interval, and then a later phase characterized by more typical Hawaiian stacked stone construction.A precise survey of the structure shows that it deviates only slightly from cardinality, but when the altitude of the Kohala ridgeline is taken into account, the site was oriented within 1-2° of the equinoctial rising of the sun.Hawaiian oral traditions associate the hewing of temple stones with the famed Hawai'i Island king 'Umi-a-Lī loa; we suggest that Kukuipahu Heiau may have been built during his reign, a hypothesis that deserves further research.

Overview

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Kukuipahu Heiau in Kohala, Hawai‘i Island, is described as the most elaborate example of cut-and-dressed stone architecture in ancient Hawai‘i, with more than 100 worked basalt slabs and rare worked red scoria blocks. The authors infer an early cut-and-dressed terrace phase, a destructive interval, and a later stacked-stone enclosure, and suggest the site may relate to the reign of ‘Umi-a-Līloa.

Key findings

  • Kukuipahu incorporates more than 100 cut-and-dressed basalt slabs, of which 80 were measured, plus at least 12 measured red scoria slabs; the authors state it is unique in Hawai‘i for cut-and-dressed red scoria.
  • The structure has at least two construction phases: an earlier terrace faced with cut-and-dressed basalt and red scoria, followed by partial destruction, then a later enclosure built with typical Hawaiian stacked natural stones.
  • The main structure has a footprint of about 580 m², with outer wall faces 29 m north–south by 20 m east–west; overall dimensions including rubble scree are 51 m by 35 m.
  • The largest scoria slab is 2.91 m long, with estimated volume 0.73 m³ and weight about 589 kg (1300 pounds); the largest south-facing basalt slab is 1.83 m long, 1.30 m high, and 0.45 m thick.
  • Archaeoastronomical survey found wall azimuths of 5.0°/185.0° and 5.5°/185.5°, and the central slab alignment at 3.1°/183.1°; the abstract states the site was oriented within 1–2° of the equinoctial rising of the sun when the Kohala ridgeline altitude is considered.

Methods

  • Descriptive archaeological field recording and mapping of Kukuipahu Heiau, combining a plane table and alidade survey by Alan Carpenter, a GPS map and photographs by Kirch in 2008, and detailed stone measurements by Kirch in 2019.
  • Archaeoastronomical survey by Clive Ruggles on June 22, 2009, using a Nikon NPL-332 Total Station, with true north determined from timed observations of the sun and wall orientations estimated from surveyed points along intact facings.
  • Horizon analysis used a digital horizon profile generated from 1:24000 USGS Digital Terrain Model data, plus comparative literature on Eastern Polynesian stone-working.

Limitations

  • The paper states that no subsurface excavations have been carried out, so the chronology of construction and use remains unknown until radiocarbon or U-series dates on coral can be obtained.
  • The reconstruction of the early-phase structure is explicitly hypothetical and would require targeted excavations to test; the authors also note that the actual construction sequence may have been more complex.
  • The authors state that the exact number of cut-and-dressed scoria slabs is unknown, that some basalt slabs are buried or were removed, that the petroglyph boulder was not recorded in detail, and that the eastern horizon cannot currently be observed directly because trees obscure the view.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1353/rnj.2019.0000

Cites

19 of 19 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Verification

Claims the paper makes

0 of 50 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

Verify all 4 references — free account
  • Findingreasoning

    The greater part of the cut-and-dressed stone facade that retained the terrace on its south, west, and east sides has been torn up and the stones displaced.

    “An episode of partial destruction of the early-phase structure can be inferred from the fact that the greater part of the cut-anddressed stone facade that retained the terrace on its south, west, and east sides has clearly been torn up and the stones displaced.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    More than 100 slabs of cut-and-dressed basalt are found at Kukuipahu.

    “More than 100 slabs of cut-and-dressed basalt are found at Kukuipahu.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingreasoning

    The main structure, not including the rubble scree, has a footprint of about 580 m2.

    “Thus the main structure, not including the rubble scree, has a footprint of about 580 m 2 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The motifs on the petroglyph boulder are executed in raised relief.

    “The most significant aspect of this petroglyph boulder is the fact that the motifs are executed in raised relief, which is a rare technique in Hawai'i, where most petroglyphs were pecked into the stone.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In the intact series of facing slabs along the southwest, the largest slab is 1.42 m long and 0.84 m high, with a thickness of 0.26 m.

    “In the intact series of facing slabs along the southwest, the largest slab is 1.42 m long and 0.84 m high, with a thickness of 0.26 m.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one. 48
  • Probably not a substantial claim. 39

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    The faces of the slabs are typically straight and well smoothed, although on some slabs the interior face that would have been hidden from view has not been flattened.

    “The faces are typically straight and well smoothed, although on some slabs the interior face that would have been hidden from view has not been flattened.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Immediately south of the gap is an alignment of seven large, rectangular cut-and-dressed blocks of reddish scoria; an eighth block abuts these at a right angle at the southern end.

    “Immediately south of this gap is an alignment of seven large, rectangular cut-and-dressed blocks of reddish scoria; an eighth block abuts these at a right angle at the southern end of the alignment (Figs. 8 and 9).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingown data

    The scoria blocks are flanked on the west by a low bench or terrace of natural stones about 3.5 m wide, partly faced on its western side with natural boulders.

    “These scoria blocks, impressive in their size and reddish color, are flanked on the west by a low bench or terrace of natural stones about 3.5 m wide, partly faced on its western side with natural boulders.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    As seen in Table 1, the average length of slabs declines from south, to west, to north, with the largest slab in the north being 0.94 m long, and the average length of the northern slabs being just 0.70 m.

    “As seen in Table 1, the average length of slabs declines from south, to west, to north, with the largest slab in the north being 0.94 m long, and the average length of the northern slabs being just 0.70 m.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    On the western side there is a massive concentration of natural stones that seems to form a kind of low platform, to the south and north of which the ground is again largely clear of stones.

    “And, on the western side there is a massive concentration of natural stones that seems to form a kind of low platform, to the south and north of which the ground is again largely clear of stones; this low platform is associated with the second phase of construction.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingown data

    The petroglyph slab is presently lying on some rubble boulders along the western edge of the site.

    “The slab is presently lying on some rubble boulders along the western edge of the site, but this may not have been its original position.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Another scoria slab is 2.59 m long, and a third is 1.68 m long.

    “Another scoria slab is almost as long at 2.59 m, and a third is 1.68 m long.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The distance between the outer facings of the north and south walls is 29 m, and between the west and east wall faces is 20 m.

    “The distance between the outer facings of the north and south walls is 29 m, while that between the west and east wall faces is 20 m.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingown data

    A slab with a notch cut out of one corner was observed, a feature observed on only one slab.

    “Figure 11 shows a slab with a notch cut out of one corner, a feature observed on only one slab; this likely was for fitting a slab of a higher, second course into the facade.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    A precise survey of Kukuipahu Heiau shows that it deviates only slightly from cardinality, but when the altitude of the Kohala ridgeline is taken into account, the site was oriented within 1-2° of the equinoctial rising of the sun.

    “A precise survey of the structure shows that it deviates only slightly from cardinality, but when the altitude of the Kohala ridgeline is taken into account, the site was oriented within 1-2° of the equinoctial rising of the sun.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The site consists of a rectangular terrace set into the gently sloping landscape, elevated on the west and cut slightly into the hillside on the east.

    “Broadly speaking, the site consists of a rectangular terrace set into the gently sloping landscape, elevated on the west and cut slightly into the hillside on the east (Figs. 2 and 3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Moving north along the western exterior, the slab facing disappears under stone rubble but then reappears with a low, intact alignment of seven adjacent cut-and-dressed basalt slabs.

    “Moving north along the western exterior, the slab facing disappears for a distance under stone rubble, but then reappears with a low, intact alignment of seven adjacent cut-and-dressed basalt slabs (Fig. 6); these may have formed a lower or base course of the original exterior facing of the earlier phase terrace.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingnone given

    The most prominent scoria slabs are those making up the intact facing along the eastern edge of the site.

    “The most prominent scoria slabs are those making up the intact facing along the eastern edge of the site.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The largest scoria slab on the site is 2.91 m long, with an exposed height of 0.36 m, and thickness varying between 0.41 and 0.71 m.

    “The largest of these is an impressive 2.91 m long, with an exposed height of 0.36 m (the slab is partially buried), and thickness varying between 0.41 and 0.71 m.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    In general, the slabs are rectangular with right-angle corners, longer than wide (or high when set upright), and of relatively consistent thickness.

    “In general, the slabs are rectangular with right-angle corners, longer than wide (or high, when they were set upright), and of relatively consistent thickness.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    To the east of the dividing alignment the level ground is largely free of stones; there is a slight drop down to the west of 10-20 cm.

    “To the east of this dividing alignment the level ground is largely free of stones; there is a slight drop down to the west (of 10-20 cm).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Kukuipahu Heiau incorporates more than one hundred cut-and-dressed basalt slabs, as well as worked red scoria blocks.

    “which incorporates more than one hundred cut-and-dressed basalt slabs, as well as worked red scoria blocks.”
    • Also stated in: § Introduction · plain
      “Kukuipahu exhibits substantial cut-and-dressed basalt slabs and large blocks of shaped red scoria.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    On the north, there is a crude stacked wall of natural stones (ca. 2 m thick) that forms the northern wall of the later enclosure and abuts the western stacked stone wall.

    “As on the south and west, there is a crude, stacked wall of natural stones (ca. 2 m thick) that forms the northern wall of the later enclosure (and abuts the western stacked stone wall).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingown data

    The authors measured 12 reddish scoria slabs on the site.

    “we measured 12 of these slabs, but there are many smaller ones scattered about the site which we did not have time to count or measure.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingcitation

    The largest scoria slab at Kukuipahu has an estimated volume of 0.73 m3 and a calculated total weight of about 589 kg (1300 pounds).

    “The largest scoria slab at Kukuipahu has an estimated volume of 0.73 m 3 , which calculates to a total weight of about 589 kg (1300 pounds).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The sizes of the cut-and-dressed basalt slabs vary around the structure, with the largest slabs being those of the disturbed south facing, and the smallest slabs being those of the northern face.

    “The sizes of the cut-and-dressed basalt slabs vary around the structure, with the largest slabs being those of the disturbed south facing, and the smallest slabs being those of the northern face (Table 1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    On the south is a roughly rectangular level space, largely free of surface stones, defined by low walls of stacked stone, measuring 15 m north-south by 11 m east-west.

    “On the south is a roughly rectangular level space, largely free of surface stones, defined on its perimeters by low walls of stacked stone (this space measures 15 m north-south by 11 m east-west).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingown data

    There is an extensive scree of stones to the west of the intact facing alignments, made up of both natural stones and many smaller cut-and-dressed slabs of basalt and red scoria.

    “There is an extensive scree of stones to the west of the intact facing alignments made up of both natural stones and many smaller cut-and-dressed slabs of basalt and of red scoria.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The level space is bounded on the north by a disturbed alignment of four large cut-and-dressed basalt facing slabs, the westernmost of which is still upright in its original position.

    “This level space is bounded on the north by a disturbed alignment of four large cut-and-dressed basalt facing slabs, the westernmost of which is still in its upright, original position (Fig. 4).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingown data

    The star Shaula (declination -36.7° in A.D. 1600) would have been seen to rise behind the peak in the Kohala Ridge that forms the highest point on the horizon, at azimuth 132°.

    “the star Shaula (l Sco, declination À36.7° in A.D. 1600) would have been seen to rise behind the peak in the Kohala Ridge that forms the highest point on the horizon, at azimuth 132°.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingnone given

    The chronology of Kukuipahu's construction and use will remain unknown until subsurface excavations and radiocarbon or U-series dating on coral are carried out.

    “Until subsurface excavations can be carried out at Kukuipahu, and either radiocarbon dates, or U-series dates on coral obtained, the chronology of the site's construction and use will remain unknown.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingcitation

    A digital horizon profile generated from 1:24000 USGS Digital Terrain Model data shows that the horizon to the east, formed by the ridgeline of the Kohala Mountains, has an altitude of around 6.5° and maintains at least 5.5° from azimuth 65° to 145°, encompassing the entire solar rising arc.

    “examination of a digital horizon profile generated from 1:24000 USGS Digital Terrain Model (DTM) data by Andrew Smith of the University of Adelaide (see Kirch & Ruggles [2019:88-89] for more information) shows that the horizon to the east, formed by the ridgeline of the Kohala Mountains, has an altitude of around 6.5° and maintains a similar altitude (at least 5.5°) all the way from azimuth 65° to”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kirch & Ruggles [2019:88-89]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationnone given

    The notch cut out of one corner of a slab likely was for fitting a slab of a higher, second course into the facade.

    “Figure 11 shows a slab with a notch cut out of one corner, a feature observed on only one slab; this likely was for fitting a slab of a higher, second course into the facade.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationcitation

    The eastern side of the site has a large gap, apparently the result of a bulldozer episode some years ago.

    “The eastern (upslope) side of the site has a large gap, apparently the result of a bulldozer episode some years ago (T.Tam Sing, pers.comm., 2019; see also Rosendahl's 1969map [in Adams & Athens 1993, Fig. 39]).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites T.Tam Sing, pers.comm., 2019

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Rosendahl's 1969map [in Adams & Athens 1993, Fig. 39]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Kukuipahu Heiau was not recorded in Stokes's 1907 survey of heiau of Hawai'i Island, nor is it mentioned in Thrum's list of Hawai'i heiau.

    “Surprisingly, given its unique stonework, the site was not recorded in Stokes's 1907 survey of heiau of Hawai'iIsland (Stokes 1991), nor is it mentioned in Thrum's list of Hawai'i heiau (Thrum 1908).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Stokes 1991
    • cites Thrum 1908

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Cut-and-dressed masonry is exceedingly rare in Hawai'i, while it was common in other islands of Eastern Polynesia.

    “Although common in other islands of Eastern Polynesia, cut-and-dressed masonry is exceedingly rare in Hawai'i.”
    • Also stated in: § Introduction · plain
      “With very few exceptions, however, Hawaiian stone architecture involved stacking and fitting together natural stone cobbles and boulders, without artificial modification of the stones through cutting and dressing.”
    • Also stated in: § Introduction · boosted
      “Thus, ancient Hawaiian stonework contrasts with that in some other parts of Eastern Polynesia, such as the Society Islands, Marquesas, and especially Rapa Nui, where cut-and-dressed stonework was well developed (Linton 1925;Emory 1933;Heyerdahl & Ferdon 1961;Martinsson-Wallin 1994).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Linton 1925
    • cites Emory 1933
    • cites Heyerdahl & Ferdon 1961

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The quarrying and moving of the very large scoria slabs must have required considerable skill and labor.

    “The quarrying and moving of the very large scoria slabs must have required considerable skill and labor.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The extent of stone-working at Kukuipahu surpasses that in the Kīkī-a-Ola irrigation canal, making Kukuipahu the most elaborate example of cut-and-dressed stone architecture in ancient Hawai'i.

    “The extent of stone-working at Kukuipahu surpasses that in the Kīkī-a-Ola irrigation canal, making Kukuipahu the most elaborate example of cut-and-dressed stone architecture in ancient Hawai'i.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given

    The vesicular basalt of the slabs most likely came from a pāhoehoe flow in which there are natural cleavage planes parallel to the surface, allowing sizeable blocks to be pried free.

    “The slabs are made of vesicular basalt, most likely from a pāhoehoe flow in which there are natural cleavage planes parallel to the surface, allowing sizeable blocks to be pried free.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The earlier construction phase incorporated the cut-and-dressed stonework, while the later construction phase involved stacking and fitting of natural stones in a manner more typical of Hawaiian monumental architecture.

    “indicating that the earlier construction phase incorporated the cut-and-dressed stonework, while the later construction phase involved stacking and fitting of natural stones in a manner more typical of Hawaiian monumental architecture.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given

    The low, single-course alignment of cut-and-dressed basalt slabs dividing the interior is presumed to be part of the earlier phase.

    “The interior of the structure is divided into western and eastern sectors by a low, singlecourse alignment of cut-and-dressed basalt slabs running north-south, also presumed to be part of the earlier phase.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The visible superposition of components indicates the relative age of construction phases, such that a wall superimposed over another is later.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    The extant configuration of Kukuipahu Heiau reflects at a minimum two phases of construction, as well as an intervening probable phase of partial destruction.

    “Even in the absence of stratigraphic information derived from excavation, it is evident that the extant configuration of Kukuipahu Heiau reflects at a minimum two phases of construction, as well as an intervening probable phase of partial destruction.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Kukuipahu Heiau has at least two construction phases: an earlier phase utilizing worked stone, followed by a destructive interval, and a later phase characterized by more typical Hawaiian stacked stone construction.

    “There appear to have been at least two construction phases, with an earlier phase utilizing the worked stone, followed by a destructive interval, and then a later phase characterized by more typical Hawaiian stacked stone construction.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationnone given

    The petroglyph slab may not be in its original position.

    “The slab is presently lying on some rubble boulders along the western edge of the site, but this may not have been its original position.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationown data

    The slab with cupules is evidently a papamū or board for playing the traditional Hawaiian game of kōnane.

    “Also of note in this southern portion of the site is a rectangular basalt slab whose surface has been modified with pecked parallel rows of small indentations or cupules; this is evidently a papamū or board for playing the traditional Hawaiian game of kōnane.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Hawaiian oral traditions associate the hewing of temple stones with the famed Hawai'i Island king 'Umi-a-Lī loa.

    “Hawaiian oral traditions associate the hewing of temple stones with the famed Hawai'i Island king 'Umi-a-Lī loa”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Remy 1868

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Scoria ranges in weight from about 41 to 58 pounds per cubic foot.

    “According to Patty (1971:8), scoria ranges in weight from about 41 to 58 pounds per cubic foot.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Patty (1971:8)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The mean width (height when set upright) of 0.21 m is a minimal value, as the stones are set in the ground and their full heights could not be ascertained without excavation.

    “The mean width (height when set upright) of 0.21 m is a minimal value, as the stones are set in the ground and their full heights could not be ascertained without excavation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    It appears that the northern facade may have consisted of two courses, whereas the southern (and probably southwestern) facades consisted of only a single course of larger slabs.

    “It also appears that the northern facade may have consisted of two courses, whereas the southern (and probably southwestern) facades consisted of only a single course of larger slabs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The visible superposition of components indicates the relative age of construction phases, such that a wall superimposed over another is later.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductown data

    The authors have not made an exact count of the cut-and-dressed basalt slabs, although they took measurements of 80 individual slabs; some slabs are buried under stacked stone walls and in the rubble scree.

    “We have not made an exact count, although we took measurements of 80 individual slabs; no doubt some slabs are buried under stacked stone walls and in the rubble scree as well.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    The most extensive working of both basalt and red scoria or tuff in Eastern Polynesia occurred on Rapa Nui, where the art of cutting-and-dressing stone reached its apogee.

    “The most extensive working of both basalt and red scoria or tuff in Eastern Polynesia occurred on Rapa Nui, where indeed the art of cutting-and-dressing stone reached its apogee (Heyerdahl & Ferdon 1961;Martinsson-Wallin 1994;Treister et al. 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Heyerdahl & Ferdon 1961

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Martinsson-Wallin 1994

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Treister et al. 2013

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Emory found in 1933 at Kailua a cut-and-dressed stone with a notch for fitting it against another slab, convincing him that the numerous squared stones found about the Kailua grounds were assembled at one time in some structure.

    “Emory found, in 1933 at Kailua, a cut-and-dressed stone with a notch for fitting it against another slab (this stone was shipped by Emory to Bishop Museum, catalog number C.06449), convincing Emory that”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Emory MS

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Cut slabs of red or white tufa, coralline rock, or cut basalt standing on edge were used in the facings of specialized rectangular platforms known as tu'u, upon which human sacrifices and enemy dead were displayed.

    “Further use of”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Suggs 1961:162

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Special care was taken in the dressing of marae cornerstones in the Windward Islands (Tahiti and Mo'orea), which were most commonly made of red tuff.

    “Special care was taken in the dressing of marae cornerstones in the Windward Islands (Tahiti and Mo'orea), which were most commonly made of red tuff.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Maka'ōpio Heiau at Honokāhau on Hawai'i Island incorporates a few cut-and-dressed basalt slabs but does not compare to Kukuipahu in the extent of worked stone.

    “On Hawai'i Island, Maka'ōpio Heiau at Honokāhau (Kirch 1985:167, Fig. 148) incorporates a few cut-anddressed basalt slabs, but does not begin to compare to Kukuipahu in the extent of worked stone.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kirch 1985:167, Fig. 148

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    In contrast to their rarity in Hawaiian monumental sites, cut-and-dressed basalt and red scoria/tuff stone-working practices are well evidenced in other island groups of Eastern Polynesia.

    “In contrast to the rarity of cut-and-dressed basalt-and general absence of cut-anddressed red scoria-in Hawaiian monumental sites, these kinds of stone-working practices are well evidenced in other island groups of Eastern Polynesia.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    William Ellis, traveling in 1823 through North Kohala near Kukuipahu, was told of a tradition of several visits made in remote times by some natives to Nuku Hiva, Tahuata and Tahiti.

    “The English missionary William Ellis, traveling in 1823 through North Kohala in the general vicinity of Kukuipahu, was told of a tradition”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ellis 1963:284

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The overall form of the original structure at Kukuipahu, as tentatively reconstructed, more closely resembles a Marquesan elite residential paepae and does not have the same form as a Rapa Nui image ahu.

    “However, the overall form of the original structure at Kukuipahu-as we have tentatively reconstructed it-more closely resembles a Marquesan elite residential paepae, and does not have the same form as a Rapa Nui image ahu.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    In the Society Islands, round-faced basalt stones were worked and stacked to form the facings of marae altars and walls, and tuff and coral were squared for incorporation in the facings of ahu platforms.

    “In the Society Islands, Emory (1933:11) describes the working of round-faced basalt stones that were stacked together to form the facings of marae (temple) altars and walls, as well as the”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Emory 1933:11

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Remy reports a version of the tradition associating 'Umi with cut stone-working, employing workmen to cut stones for a sepulchral cave or a palace.

    “A version of this tradition associating 'Umi with cut stone-working is also reported by Remy (1868:27), who writes:”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Remy 1868:27

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    One of the 'Opunohu Valley marae has an ahu with a row of capping stones of cut-and-dressed red tuff.

    “One of these marae also has an ahu with a row of capping stones of cut-and-dressed red tuff (Kahn & Kirch 2014, Fig. 3.10).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kahn & Kirch 2014, Fig. 3.10

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The largest slabs were positioned on the south and southwest, with smaller slabs along the northwest and north, where two courses of stone were likely involved.

    “The largest slabs were positioned on the south and southwest, with smaller slabs along the northwest and north, where two courses of stone were likely involved.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    For Ra'ivavae in the Austral Islands, red tuff blocks were used in the enclosing walls and ahu of marae, and in the facings of burial cists.

    “For Ra'ivavae, however, Edwards (2003:154-157) mentions the use of”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Edwards 2003:154-157

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Red is a sacred color reserved for persons of high rank and for the gods, associated in particular with the god Kū, and also with Kāne and Kanaloa.

    “as red is a sacred color reserved for persons of high rank, and for the gods (red was associated in particular with the god Kū, although also with Kāne and Kanaloa [Valeri 1985:270, 275-276, Table 1]).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Valeri 1985:270, 275-276, Table 1

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The main terrace was divided into west and east sectors by a continuous alignment of cut-and-dressed basalt slabs, with the eastern sector elevated about 20 cm higher than the western sector.

    “The main terrace was divided into west and east sectors by a continuous alignment of cut-and-dressed basalt slabs, with the eastern sector elevated about 20 cm higher than the western sector.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Genealogical reckoning places the reign of 'Umi between approximately A.D. 1570 and 1590.

    “Genealogical reckoning places the reign of 'Umi between approximately A.D. 1570-1590 (Kirch 2010:92-98, Table 3.1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kirch 2010:92-98, Table 3.1 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The initial phase of construction of the terrace utilized cut-and-dressed basalt slabs to face the terrace along its south, west, and north sides, and had an east facade of red scoria blocks.

    “(1) an initial phase of construction of the terrace utilizing cut-and-dressed basalt slabs to face the terrace along its south, west, and north sides, and with an east facade of red scoria blocks”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    True north was determined accurately from a series of timed observations of the sun, as is standard procedure in archaeoastronomy.

    “true north was determined accurately from a series of timed observations of the sun, as is standard procedure in archaeoastronomy (Ruggles 1999:164-171).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ruggles 1999:164-171

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Fornander writes that 'Umi erected several heiau distinguished from the generality of heiau by the employment of hewn stones, including the Heiau of Kukii in Puna and Pohaku Hanalei in Kau.

    “In making his tours around the island, Umi erected several Heiaus, distinguished from the generality of Heiaus by the employment of hewn stones.Such, among others, are the Heiau of Kukii, on the hill of that name, overlooking the warm springs of Kapoho, in the district of Puna; and of Pohaku Hanalei, in the district of Kau, above the wooded belt of the mountain.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fornander 1880:101

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    One of the voyages in that tradition was made by Kamapiikai, a priest of a temple in Kohala dedicated to Kānenuiākea, who made a voyage to Tahiti and three subsequent voyages to the southern islands.

    “One of these voyages was made by Kamapiikai,”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ellis 1963:284-285

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The eastern orientation of Kukuipahu Heiau with its close alignment to the equinoctial rising of the sun would be consistent with a temple dedicated to Kānenuiākea, a form of Kāne closely associated with the sun.

    “the eastern orientation of the site with its close alignment to the equinoctial rising of the sun would be consistent with a temple dedicated to Kānenuiākea, one of the many kinolau or particular forms of Kāne, who was closely associated with the sun.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    In the Marquesas, worked basalt was less commonly used than natural boulders, but quarrying and dressing of red scoria or tuff was widely practiced.

    “In the Marquesas, worked basalt was less commonly used than natural boulders, but quarrying and dressing of red scoria or tuff was widely practiced (Linton 1925:11-12).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Linton 1925:11-12

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Kamakau writes that 'Umi commanded his people to hew long four-sided stone slabs for a stone tomb, which was not completed when he died.

    “He commanded his sons, daughters, chiefs, and commoners all over Hawaii to hew long, four-sided stone slabs, an amana [about six feet] and an iwilei [about three feet] in length, and half an iwilei in width.The stone used was the close-grained 'ala' ....T h estone tomb of 'Umi-a-Liloa was not completed when he died on Hawaii.(1961:32)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kamakau 1961:32

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Cut-and-dressed cornerstones of red tuff or scoria are present in virtually all of the marae enclosures of the upper 'Opunohu Valley on Mo'orea.

    “Kahn and Kirch (2014:70, Fig. 3.12) describe the cut-and-dressed cornerstones of red tuff or scoria that are present in virtually all of the marae enclosures of the upper 'Opunohu Valley on Mo'orea.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kahn and Kirch 2014:70, Fig. 3.12

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    According to legend, Maui's fishhook was used to fish up islands from the bottom of the sea, and the peak below the asterism resembles an island being fished up from behind the slightly nearer ridge.

    “According to legend, Maui's fishhook was used to fish up islands from the bottom of the sea (Fornander 1880: 371) and the peak below the asterism resembles an island being fished up from behind the slightly nearer ridge.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fornander 1880: 371

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    The eastern side of the terrace was cut slightly into the hillside and was defined by a row of large rectangular blocks of red scoria, adjacent to which was a bench or narrow terrace about 3 m wide.

    “The eastern side of the terrace, which was cut slightly into the hillside, was defined by a row of large rectangular blocks of red scoria, adjacent to which was a kind of bench or narrow terrace about 3 m wide.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    In the Marquesas, cut-and-dressed tuff (and sometimes basalt) was most frequently used for risers setting off the slightly elevated sleeping platforms along the rear side of megalithic paepae or house platforms.

    “The most frequent use of cut-anddressed tuff (and sometimes of basalt) was for”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Suggs 1961:161, Fig. 38, D

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationcitation

    The early-phase structure resembles the simple terraced shrines or 'marae' recorded by Emory on Mokumanamana (Necker) Island, albeit on a larger and more elaborate scale.

    “this early-phase structure resembles the simple terraced shrines or "marae" recorded by Emory (1928:71-86) on Mokumanamana (or Necker) Island in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands, albeit on a larger and more elaborate scale (see also Kikiloi 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Emory (1928:71-86)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Kikiloi 2012

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Kūki'i Heiau in the Puna district on Hawai'i Island is described as having had cut-and-dressed paving blocks in its interior, one of which was removed and is curated in the Bishop Museum.

    “Kūki'i Heiau in the Puna district on Hawai'i Island is described as having had cutand-dressed paving blocks in its interior (Stokes 1991:151-153, Fig. 76); one of those paving slabs was removed and is curated in the Bishop Museum (catalog no.4899).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Stokes 1991:151-153, Fig. 76

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    On Rapa Nui, cut-and-dressed basalt slabs were used in the facings of ahu and in elite house foundations, while cut-and-dressed red scoria or tuff was used to cap ahu facings and for the pukao placed on some moai.

    “Cut-and-dressed basalt slabs were used both in the facings of ahu (temple platforms) and in elite house foundations, while cut-and-dressed red scoria or tuff was used both to cap the facings of ahu and for the pukao (topknots) that were placed on the heads of some moai or statues.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
75 of 75

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Kukuipahu Heiau has never been formally described in the published archaeological literature on Hawaiian archaeology.

    “Although Kukuipahu Heiau has been known to some local residents of the Kohala district, it has never been formally described in the published archaeological literature on Hawaiian archaeology.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The visible superposition of components indicates the relative age of construction phases, such that a wall superimposed over another is later.

    “Based on visible superposition of its components, it is evident that Kukuipahu Heiau has an earlier phase that incorporates the cut-and-dressed stonework, and a later phase utilizing more typical Hawaiian dry-stacked wall construction.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Raised relief is a rare technique in Hawai'i, where most petroglyphs were pecked into the stone.

    “which is a rare technique in Hawai'i, where most petroglyphs were pecked into the stone.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The early-phase structure at Kukuipahu does not conform to typical forms of late Hawaiian heiau or religious structures.

    “which does not conform to typical forms of late Hawaiian heiau or religious structures.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The later-phase enclosure with its thick, dry-stacked walls and low platform conforms to known patterns of later pre-contact Hawaiian heiau or temples.

    “Unlike the early phase, the later-phase enclosure with its thick, dry-stacked walls and what appears to be a low platform within the western part of the now-enclosed court do conform to known patterns of later pre-contact Hawaiian heiau or temples.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In Hawaiian and Polynesian cultures in general, relative height is associated with rank and kapu.

    “In Hawaiian and Polynesian cultures in general, relative height is associated with rank and kapu.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The alignment of small cut-and-dressed basalt slabs dividing the central court originally formed a straight line.

    “Assuming that the alignment originally formed a straight line, a best-fit analysis suggests that this was oriented slightly askew to the outer walls, with azimuth 3.1°/183.1°.”
7 of 7

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Conflicting distances from equinoctial sunrise

    Minor

    The abstract says the orientation was within 1-2° of equinoctial sunrise, while the discussion says it was within 2-3°. The paper gives different ranges for the same alignment.

1 of 1

Citations

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

2 of the 21 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 5

  1. Ellis, W. 1963. Journal of William Ellis. Facsimile of the 1827 London edition. Honolulu: Advertiser Publishing Company, Ltd.
  2. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin 116. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press.
  3. Heyerdahl, T., & E.N. Ferdon, Jr., eds. 1961. Reports of the Norwegian Archaeological Expedition to Easter Island and the East Pacific, Vol. 1: Archaeology of Easter Island. Monographs of the School of American Research 24(1). Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research.
  4. Johnson, R.K., J.K. Mahelona, & C.L.N. Ruggles. 2015. Nā Inoa Hōkū: Hawaiian and Pacific Star Names (revised edition). Bognor Regis: Ocarina Books.
  5. Kirch, P.V. & C. Ruggles. 2019. Heiau, 'Āina, Lani: The Hawaiian Temple System in Ancient Kahikinui and Kaupō, Maui. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.

Cited by

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Related

Metadata

Authors
Kirch, P. V., Carpenter, A., & Ruggles, C.
Affiliations
  • University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa (US)
  • Department of Land and Natural Resources (US)
  • University of Leicester (GB)
ORCID
Kirch, Patrick V.
Venue
Rapa Nui Journal
Publisher
Project MUSE
Published
2019
Volume
32
Issue
1-2
Pages
37-57
ISSN
  • 1040-1385 (ISSN-L)
  • 2576-5469
DOI
10.1353/rnj.2019.0000
OpenAlex
W3015637636
Semantic Scholar
4f82525088926c62c3ed422fabdd244461d0218c
Cited by
2
References
21
Citations by year
2023: 1 · 2021: 1
FWCI
1.80
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Rapa nui journal (publishedVersion)
  • Project Muse (Johns Hopkins University) (submittedVersion)
  • eVols (University of Hawaii) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Historical and Architectural Studies
  • Social Sciences › Anthropology › Pacific and Southeast Asian Studies
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Archaeological and Geological Studies
Keywords
Hawaiian oral tradition, solar orientation, Eastern Polynesia

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