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Widespread Pyrethroid and DDT Resistance in the Major Malaria Vector Anopheles funestus in East Africa Is Driven by Metabolic Resistance Mechanisms
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: Establishing the extent, geographical distribution and mechanisms of insecticide resistance in malaria vectors is a prerequisite for resistance management. Here, we report a widespread distribution of insecticide resistance in the major malaria vector An. funestus across Uganda and western Kenya under the control of metabolic resistance mechanisms. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Female An. funestus collected throughout Uganda and western Kenya exhibited a Plasmodium infection rate between 4.2 to 10.4%. Widespread resistance against both type I (permethrin) and II (deltamethrin) pyrethroids and DDT was observed across Uganda and western Kenya. All populations remain highly susceptible to carbamate, organophosphate and dieldrin insecticides. Knockdown resistance plays no role in the pyrethroid and DDT resistance as no kdr mutation associated with resistance was detected despite the presence of a F1021C replacement. Additionally, no signature of selection was observed on the sodium channel gene. Synergist assays and qRT-PCR indicated that metabolic resistance plays a major role notably through elevated expression of cytochrome P450s. DDT resistance mechanisms differ from West Africa as the L119F-GSTe2 mutation only explains a small proportion of the genetic variance to DDT resistance. CONCLUSION: The extensive distribution of pyrethroid and DDT resistance in East African An. funestus populations represents a challenge to the control of this vector. However, the observed carbamate and organophosphate susceptibility offers alternative solutions for resistance management.
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“Vector control relies on a handful of insecticides used for indoor residual spraying (IRS) and treatment of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) and insecticide resistance has been widely detected in malaria vectors across the continent [5–8].”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Mulamba, C., Riveron, J. M., Ibrahim, S. S., Irving, H., Barnes, K. G., Mukwaya, L. G., Birungi, J., & Wondji, C. S.
- Affiliations
- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine (GB)
- Uganda Virus Research Institute (UG)
- Corresponding author
- Wondji, Charles S.
- Venue
- PLoS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2014-10-15
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- e110058
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4198208
- OpenAlex
- W2110918782
- Cited by
- 128
- References
- 46
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 5
- FWCI
- 13.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- LSTM Online Archive (Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine) (acceptedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Greater South Information System
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust (092794/Z/10/Z, 092794, 083515/Z/07/Z, 083515, 101893, 101893/Z/13/Z)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Malaria Research and Control
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Insect Resistance and Genetics
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Parasitology › Vector-borne infectious diseases
- Keywords
- Anopheles funestus, insecticide resistance, pyrethroid resistance, DDT resistance, metabolic resistance, malaria vectors, cytochrome P450, knockdown resistance, kdr mutation, GSTe2, resistance management, East Africa
- MeSH terms
- Africa, Eastern, Animals, Anopheles, DDT, Female, Insect Vectors, Insecticide Resistance, Insecticides, Malaria, Molecular Sequence Data, Mutation, Pyrethrins, Sodium Channels
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