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Cited by 501COVID-19 and Mental HealthPosttraumatic Stress Disorder ResearchLong-Term Effects of COVID-19

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 57 of the 57 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Why the COVID-19 pandemic is a traumatic stressor

Open access
Bridgland, Victoria M. E., Moeck, Ella K., Green, Deanne M., Swain, Taylor L., Nayda, Diane M., Matson, Lucy A., Hutchison, Nadine P., Takarangi, Melanie K. T.·2021·PLOS ONE
DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0240146PMC PMC7799777

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Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic does not fit into prevailing Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) models, or diagnostic criteria, yet emerging research shows traumatic stress symptoms as a result of this ongoing global stressor. Current pathogenic event models focus on past, and largely direct, trauma exposure to certain kinds of life-threatening events. Yet, traumatic stress reactions to future, indirect trauma exposure, and non-Criterion A events exist, suggesting COVID-19 is also a traumatic stressor which could lead to PTSD symptomology. To examine this idea, we asked a sample of online participants ( N = 1,040), in five western countries, to indicate the COVID-19 events they had been directly exposed to, events they anticipated would happen in the future, and other forms of indirect exposure such as through media coverage. We then asked participants to complete the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist-5, adapted to measure pre/peri/post-traumatic reactions in relation to COVID-19. We also measured general emotional reactions (e.g., angry, anxious, helpless), well-being, psychosocial functioning, and depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms. We found participants had PTSD-like symptoms for events that had not happened and when participants had been directly (e.g., contact with virus) or indirectly exposed to COVID-19 (e.g., via media). Moreover, 13.2% of our sample were likely PTSD-positive, despite types of COVID-19 “exposure” (e.g., lockdown) not fitting DSM-5 criteria. The emotional impact of “worst” experienced/anticipated events best predicted PTSD-like symptoms. Taken together, our findings support emerging research that COVID-19 can be understood as a traumatic stressor event capable of eliciting PTSD-like responses and exacerbating other related mental health problems (e.g., anxiety, depression, psychosocial functioning, etc.). Our findings add to existing literature supporting a pathogenic event memory model of traumatic stress.

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Metadata

Authors
Bridgland, V. M. E., Moeck, E. K., Green, D. M., Swain, T. L., Nayda, D. M., Matson, L. A., Hutchison, N. P., & Takarangi, M. K. T.
Affiliations
Flinders University (AU)
Corresponding author
Takarangi, Melanie K. T.
ORCID
Venue
PLOS ONE
Publisher
Public Library of Science (PLoS)
Published
2021-01-11
Volume
16
Issue
1
Pages
e0240146
ISSN
1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1371/journal.pone.0240146
PMC
PMC7799777
OpenAlex
W3119633778
Cited by
501
References
56
Citations by year
2026: 21 · 2025: 51 · 2024: 83 · 2023: 136 · 2022: 144 · 2021: 65
FWCI
70.90
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Minerva Access (University of Melbourne) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
Flinders University
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Clinical Neurology › Long-Term Effects of COVID-19
Keywords
COVID-19 pandemic, post-traumatic stress disorder, traumatic stress, indirect trauma exposure, media exposure, PTSD diagnostic criteria, lockdown, anxiety, depression, psychosocial functioning, well-being
MeSH terms
COVID-19, Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Anxiety, Depression, Emotions, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Stress, Psychological, Young Adult, Pandemics

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