The DOI matches its Crossref record; 8 of the 8 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 56 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Anti-Judaism and Anti-Semitism
Open accessAbstract
Peter GemeinhardtAnti-Judaism and
Overview
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TL;DR
This multi-author encyclopedia entry surveys the terms anti-Judaism and anti-Semitism across Greco-Roman antiquity, the New Testament, patristic, medieval, modern, Islamic, and other contexts. It argues that anti-Semitism was coined in the late 19th century for racialized hostility but soon became a broad, pejorative label for anti-Jewish attitudes, while anti-Judaism often denotes religiously framed antagonism, though the boundary remains contested.
Key findings
- The entry distinguishes anti-Judaism (theologically or religiously framed hostility) from anti-Semitism (originally racialized and coined in the late 19th century; Wilhelm Marr is credited in one section). It notes that anti-Semitism expanded into a generic and later pejorative designation, especially after Nazi genocide, and that scholars disagree about applying it to premodern or New Testament phenomena.
- Greco-Roman evidence includes Antiochus IV’s persecution (175–164 BCE), Alexandrian violence in 38 CE, Roman expulsions in 139 BCE and 19 CE (with about 4,000 Jewish men conscripted under Tiberius), and pogroms during the 66–70 CE Jewish uprising; yet literary hostility seldom produced organized attacks, and anti-Jewish action was mostly sporadic and local.
- New Testament and Christian tradition: passages such as 1 Thess 2:15, the passion narratives, and John 8:31–47 have supported anti-Judaic reading formations; since the Holocaust and increasingly since the 1960s these readings have been challenged. Medieval and Reformation-era episodes—1096–97 Rhineland massacres, 1348–52 Black Death accusations, 1492 Spanish expulsion, and Luther’s 1543 pamphlets—show continuity and escalation.
- Islamic and other contexts: medieval Muslim anti-Judaism (e.g., the 1066 Granada pogrom and Abu Ishaq’s ode) differed from modern anti-Semitism, which adopted European racial and nationalist ideologies; The Protocols of the Elders of Zion appeared in Arabic in 1927 and Japanese in 1924. Modern anti-Semitism persisted after World War II, while Vatican II in 1965 marked a Catholic reassessment.
Methods
- Multi-author encyclopedia entry/reference work, not an empirical study; it synthesizes scholarship across historical periods and regions.
- Draws on biblical, patristic, medieval, legal, literary, film, and modern polemical sources, with bibliographies; no primary data collection or statistical analysis.
- Uses terminological and historical-critical review, comparing scholarly definitions (e.g., Langmuir, Fein) and period-specific evidence.
Limitations
- The Greco-Roman section explicitly identifies methodological problems: paraphrasing sources rather than interpreting them, proof-texting, apologetics, Judeo-centric selectivity, fragmentary evidence, and uncertain contexts or authenticity.
- The entry states that terminology remains contested, with no consensus on applying anti-Semitism to antiquity or the New Testament or on distinguishing it from anti-Judaism.
- Evident from the text: the broad multi-author scope produces uneven coverage and no unified method; several sections are brief and rely on secondary synthesis.
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Claims the paper makes
94 No basis given · 41 Own interpretation · 39 Sources not found · 2 Not checked yet · 1 Own result
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In the paper
“The result of all this change was that Jews were no longer readily identifiable in many European societies.”
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“Terminology notwithstanding, there has been a growing consensus that anti-Jewish thinking took a significant negative turn with the maturation of western Christendom during the 12th and 13th centuries.”
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“Antiochus did not persecute the hundreds of thousands of Jews in other parts of his realm, notably in Syria and in Asia Minor.”
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“At Alexandria, Jewish aspirations to Greek citizenship whilst maintaining Jewish identity clearly caused tension.”
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“Serious observers saw in the purportedly new theories and movements obvious continuities from prior anti-Jewish thinking and behaviors.”
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“Thus e.g., H. S. Chamberlain, in his lengthy and influential Foundations of the Nineteenth Century, laid out a detailed and complicated case to show that, while raised in the Jewish and hence Semitic environment of the Galilee, Jesus of Nazareth and his immediate followers were in fact not Semites, but were rather Aryans (Chamberlain 1912”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Chamberlain 1912
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In the paper
“Historically in Europe, Jews -generally excluded from the broad spectrum of economic opportunities -pioneered in innovative areas of the economy, areas for one reason or another shunned by the Christian majority.”
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“Perhaps the most obvious example was the anti-Semitic claim of a worldwide Jewish conspiracy aimed at toppling regnant Aryan civilization.This notion was directly parallel to medieval theories of a Jewish conspiracy to harm Christians and medieval Christendom.”
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In the paper
“The anti-Semitic assault on Jewish economic activities as intended on the overt level to enrich Jews, with the deeper intention of destroying the old and sturdy underpinnings of European Christendom, were reminiscent of much late medieval and early modern castigation of Jewish economic activity as baneful.”
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In the paper
“The locution “anti-Semitism,” coined to herald a radically new understanding of Jews and Judaism as a racial phenomenon and of Christian-Jewish tensions as a biological struggle, quickly evolved into a synonym for anti-Jewish sentiment and action over the ages.”
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In the paper
“Treatises to prove this alleged biological disparity and struggle multiplied.These treatises were steeped in the new genetic and racist science that emerged in 19th-century Europe”
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In the paper
“Commodian knows of Nero as Antichrist (Instr.i.41.5-13), but he also writes of two Antichrists (Apol.834-940), i.e., of Nero redivivus and “the King from the East.””
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Instr.i.41.5-13
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- Not matchedcites Apol.834-940
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In the paper
“It was under these circumstances that the term “anti-Judaism” came into being.The new term pointed to the reality of Christian-Jewish tensions, but suggested that Christian opposition to Judaism as a religious faith was by no means racist, irrational, or destructive.”
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In the paper
“Jews became prominent in a number of innovative sectors of the European economy, with some of them (like the Rothschilds) achieving heights of success and power.”
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“The classic example of such pioneering was the Jewish role in the credit markets of medieval Europe.”
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“Often a Judeo-centric view of antiquity leads to selective discussion.”
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In the paper
“In the debate on the anti-Jewish sentiments and actions reported in documents of Greco-Roman antiquity some scholars consider modern concepts (such as “anti-Semitism”) of little help in historical investigation of antiquity; others claim to recog-nize a unique ancient antipathy directed at the Jews specifically (for review of issues see Cohen; Yavetz; Langmuir; Schäfer: 1-8, 197-211).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cohen
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- Not matchedcites Yavetz
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- Not matchedcites Langmuir
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In the paper
“Previously, Jews had lived separately, had engaged in restricted economic outlets, and had fashioned their own cultures.Now the edifice of separatism was dismantled.”
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“Christians over the ages had opposed Jews and the dangers allegedly emanating from them as an outgrowth of religious faith and praxis.”
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“Many resented the new notion of a secular polity and were dismayed at the diminution of the role of Christianity in the life of society.”
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“Many of these statements are quotations in polemical texts and there are often questions regarding authenticity.”
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In the paper
“As all prior anti-Jewish sentiment became labeled anti-Semitic, a term now bearing inflammatory negativism, many observers felt that some of the phenomena caught in the new and broad net did not fit appropriately under the designation anti-Semitic.Especially problematic for such observers was the inclusion of traditional Christian-Jewish religious jousting under the rubric of anti-Semitism.”
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In the paper
“Commodian puts it in a slightly different way: Rome will finally be conquered by the barbarians (Apol.810-22), but not within his own lifetime, so that there will be still time for preparation .”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Apol.810-22
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In the paper
“As this new political structure emerged, the Jews posed significant problems.The first was simply deciding whether the new secular states and societies would include Jews as an element at all.This question was fairly quickly decided in the affirmative.”
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In the paper
“Throughout these writings, the near fall of the Roman Empire is predicted in stark terms, and the eminent sign of the upcoming end of the world is the rise of the Antichrist, i.e., the one emperor who is famous for his cruelty and his persecution of the Christians: Nero”
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“What eventuated was a set of demands on European Jews to acculturate effectively into 19thcentury Europe, demands that were rapidly met by most Jews.”
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“The most ambitious effort to redefine the term anti-Semitism was that of the late G. I. Langmuir.In his numerous articles and in a major booklength study -History, Religion, and Antisemitism (Langmuir 1990), Langmuir attempted to draw a distinction among three types of conflict with “the other” -rational conflict, non-rational conflict, and irrational conflict.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Langmuir 1990
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In the paper
“The term was coined by anti-Semites to highlight the innovation in their grasp of the Jewish issue and was proudly affixed to a number of political organizations and publications.”
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In the paper
“These include: the development of broad persecutory tendencies in western European society at this juncture, fostered by a new class of functionaries intent on expanding their power and prestige as protectors of Christendom (Moore 1987); the growth of religious doubt in sectors of European society, with alleged Jewish crimes serving to quell those doubts (Langmuir 1990); the efflorescence of”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Moore 1987
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- Not matchedcites Langmuir 1990
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- Not matchedcites Abulafia 1995
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In the paper
“Armed with this new understanding of the “Jewish issue,” political movements grounded in racial theory in general and its anti-Semitic implications in particular began to spring up, in some instances achieving considerable popular support.”
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“There has been considerable agreement as to the necessity of drawing distinctions within the broad spectrum of historic and contemporary anti-Jewish attitudes and behaviors.”
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In the paper
“For such Europeans, the reality of Jews as equal citizens, which obviously contravened the historic consensus in Christendom that Jews posed dangers and had to be rigorously segregated in order to minimize these dangers, was perceived as a striking deviation from the past, indeed a departure that now created an insidious threat to Europe and its Christian heritage.”
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In the paper
“One solution to this quandary, somewhat popular in scholarly circles, has been to restrict use of the term anti-Semitism to actual instances of 19ththrough 21st-century racially grounded writings and actions, while using other locutions for prior anti-Jewish attitudes and behaviors.”
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In the paper
“Certain privileges were granted the Jews by Julius Caesar and Augustus, which remained in effect after their time.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Julius Caesar
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- Not matchedcites Augustus
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“Under the new 19th-century circumstances, Jews were no longer forced into limited niches in the economy.Nonetheless, Jews were not welcomed into all sectors of economic endeavor.Old and traditional areas of economic activity remained relatively closed to them, driving them -again quite usefully -into the new.”
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In the paper
“Methodologically the debate is plagued by a tendency to paraphrase ancient sources (instead of interpreting them), as well as proof-texting and apologetics.”
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In the paper
“Subsequent to World War II, the term “anti-Semite” has almost never been embraced by anyone with pride (as was the case earlier) and has instead become a vehicle for castigation, affixed polemically to darken reputations.”
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In the paper
“The evidence is complex: a great many of the statements are found in fragments; we do not know the occasion, the proper context or the original import of the remarks.”
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In the paper
“However, Rome was unable to hold back popular anger when townspeople and nobles chose to blame Jews for unfortunate accidents, natural disasters or other catastrophes, nor could it police local laws, judicial practice or culture.”
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In the paper
“Although apparently not embedded in existing pagan anti-Judaic reading formations, the Gospel of John leans towards a kind of demonizing of the Jews (esp.John 8 : 31-47).”
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In the paper
“The roots of this polemic lie in pre-Hellenic Egypt; broad literary testimony of this motif can be traced from Hecataeus of Abdera (ca.300 BCE) onward: Apollonius Molon, Diodorus Siculus, Lysimachus, Apion, Chaeremon (see Gabba; Feldman: 123-76; Stern 1976).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Gabba
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Feldman: 123-76
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Stern 1976
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Much of the anti-Jewish action in the Greco-Roman era was sporadic, often limited and connected to localized conflict.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Despite official rhetoric, discord, feuds and factions characterized Roman urban conditions.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At stake is what the Greek and Roman authors made of alterity; tragically we find an unwillingness to acknowledge it and a lack of effort to establish meaningful group relations.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In 38 CE, a mocking of King Agrippa I led to an announcement by governor Flaccus in which Jews were declared foreigners and aliens (see Philo, Flacc.).Mob action followed with severe and tragic effects for Alexandrian Jewry.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Philo, Flacc.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not to forget the various horrible violent actions against Jews perpetrated by Christians against Jews, which were often justified by reference to the NT, especially to the myth of the Jews as pretended Christ-killers.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Though several collegia (political associations) were banned at various times (e.g., 46 BCE), the synagogues in Rome were specifically exempted (Josephus, Ant.xiv.213-16, esp.215).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Josephus, Ant.xiv.213-16
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is only after the Holocaust and increasingly since the 1960s that this reading was questioned categorically and on a pronounced hermeneutical basis, mainly in three regards.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One cannot deny that there are texts in the NT which intentionally served anti-Judaic reading-formations.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Expulsion also took place under Claudius, but several problems relating to the sources are diffi-cult to evaluate (Smallwood: 210-16; Schwartz: 94-96; Botermann).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Smallwood: 210-16
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Schwartz: 94-96
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Botermann
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Ten Tribes (or, in a German-language version of that story, the evil, cannibalistic”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The central themes in the literary polemic regarding Judaism are the origin of the Jews in Egypt (interpreted as the expulsion of lepers), their special religious concepts, and their way of life characterized by monotheism, abstinence from impure foods, the Sabbath and circumcision.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the Middle Ages, an expanded version of that supersessionist reading came to dominate popular perceptions, particularly in the cities and towns of Europe.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The use of the NT as a source of categorical or essentialist enmity and of historically contingent polemics against Jews has a long and deeply-rooted history.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In fact all three versions are to be found in 1 Thess 2 : 15.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Later medieval readings of the Bible, including Luther's, continued to insist on the culpable role of Jews in Jesus' Passion and death, and on ideas that Gavin Langmuir has called”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Gavin Langmuir
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“legal and soteriological status of Jews in Christian polities was constantly deteriorating over this period.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Actions were taken against non-citizens, and about 4,000 Jewish men were conscripted into the military.”
plainn = 4,000- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Horror stories about Jews already are to be found in antiquity .”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not all the intellectuals of the Greco-Roman eras agreed on viewing the practices and beliefs of the Jews negatively; a remarkable number among the philosophic schools (especially of the neo-Pythagoreans and neo-Platonists) admired them.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Exclusively negative attitudes are not dominant.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“A serious conflict developed in 19 CE (Tacitus, Ann.ii.85.4;Suetonius, Tib.36; Cassius Dio lvii.18.5) that resulted in another expulsion of Jews from Rome.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Tacitus, Ann.ii.85.4
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Suetonius, Tib.36
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Cassius Dio lvii.18.5
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Continuous rivalries between associations, and the precarious supply of food often led to social instability, marked by riots and lynching.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tiberius, an opponent to Oriental cults, had earlier the same year violently suppressed Isis worship (Moehring).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Moehring
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These books and the images they contained (and inspired) depicted Jews as actively participating in the trial and Passion of Christ, as hostile to Christianity, and esp.as eschatological threats in the form of the Ten Lost Tribes.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the process, the fact that Jesus himself was a pious Jew is entirely obfuscated.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While Protestants offered new translations and interpretations of the biblical texts, most mainline Protestants followed the historical arguments of Christianity against Judaism and retained the cultural perceptions of European Society on Jews.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Veit Harlan's film Jud Süß, also produced in 1940, recounts the story of the so-called”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Broadly speaking, the Jew in literature has been a Wandering Jew: ubiquitous; various; a continuing witness to otherness.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Mel Gibson's The Passion of the Christ (2004) naively incorporates traditional anti-Jewish motifs in its mystic and gory representation of the Passion, seeking to assert a specific image of Jesus.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Only in the late 20th century did major Christian groups and thinkers grant Judaism theological legitimacy.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“With the rise of Arab nationalism and the outbreak of the Second World War, Nazi propaganda was also circulated and supported by many Arab leaders.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In combination with the traditional anti-Jewish motifs of host desecration and world conspiracy, social ills of every kind were blamed on the Jews.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Anti-Semitic policies reached a peak under the Nazi regime in Germany, 1933-45, as well as a number of fascist allies of the Nazis.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Protocols of the Elders of Zion has been available in Japanese since 1924, and provides a major source of anti-Semitic writing by Japanese of many religious persuasions, including not only Christians but also Shintoists, Buddhists, and members of New Religious Movements.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such a breakthrough in the attitudes of Christians towards Jews and Judaism occurred in the 1960s, both contemporaneously with and in the wake of Concilium Vatican II, the major Roman Catholic council that transformed Christian life in the second half of the 20th century.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Since the late 18th century the Enlightenment, modernization and secularization have also im-pacted the attitudes of Western Christian societies towards the Jews.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For instance, The Protocol of the Elders of Zion, a”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Anti-Semitism has persisted well into the 21st century, although much of the negative incitements occur today in non-European nations.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“During the medieval period, it was usually easier for Jews to live under Muslim than Christian rule, for although pogroms did take place in the Muslim world, notably in Granada in 1066, expressions of anti-Judaism were less frequent.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“In early Christian literature the Jew represents both the vehicle of revelation and its rejection.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Origen, Cels.ii.75
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Augustine, Adv.Jud. 5 and 7
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Anti-Jewish polemicists transformed older Christian arguments against Judaism and Jews into secular ones, attacking Jews on social, political and ideological grounds.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Some Protestants, however, developed a new interpretation of the Jews and their role in history, viewing the Jews as the chosen people and the objects of biblical prophecies about a restored Davidic kingdom in the land of Israel.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For centuries, the Christian church interpreted the Bible in a way hostile to Jews in the manner of Gibson.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Certainly, in Shylock Shakespeare transforms the stock character of the villainous Jew (which includes Barabas in Marlow's 1592 The Jew of Malta) into an un-stereotypically complex individual who elicits sympathy from the spectator.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Luther's pamphlets of 1543 called for Jews to convert or be locked in their synagogues and burned alive”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although Jews are stereotypically described as dominating international finance and controlling the media, many Japanese admire rather than hate and fear them.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and racial anti-Semitism can be found in societies where few Jews live.Japan provides a notable example.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Protestant opinions on the Jews have, from the beginning, been diverse and complex with different Protestant groups and thinkers developing different opinions on Judaism and Jews.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the latter decades of the 19th century theories on race and peoplehood also affected attitudes towards the Jews, reconstructing the dynamics of Christian-Jewish relations in new racial and nationalist terms.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The more appreciative Christian attitudes, however, were also not devoid of elements of anger at the Jewish refusal to accept Jesus and of negative stereotypes of Jews, which had become strongly rooted in Christian culture.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But the Jews are often used as scapegoats in Middle Eastern politics to explain local, regional and global problems, conflicts and political failures.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While the first category includes, e.g., medieval polemical debates, modern anti-Semitism is based on secular, nationalistic and racial ideologies that gained a foothold in the Muslim world from the second half of the 18th century.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the view of the anti-Semites, Jews did in fact pose a serious threat to Europe, but that threat did not flow from their religious identity, as earlier observers had misguidedly suggested.The threat came from a hitherto unsuspected direction -the Jews as a biological community hostile and dangerous to Aryan European societies.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Among others, Hippolytus identifies the emperor as the κατ χων (2 Thess 2 : 6-7) and the empire as last stronghold against the Antichrist (Comm.Dan.iv.21.2-3).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Comm.Dan.iv.21.2-3
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Similarly the Epistle to Diognetus points out that Christians “participate in everything as citizens, and endure everything as foreigners” (Diogn.5.5): They belong to heaven, but live on earth and thus are citizens of the empire, too.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Diogn.5.5
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In any case, to view the emperor as the Antichrist is clearly the exception, while to perceive of the empire as the genuine context of Christian life is the rule in the political thought of the early church.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the wake of the American and French revolutions, European societies had attempted to move beyond centuries of religiously rooted strife and bloodshed by creating a new conception of the state as a secular entity, governed by rational rules that enable humans to live peacefully and productively with one another.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The core insight advanced by this term was that the “Jewish problem” had over the ages been misconstrued through a misguided focus on religious issues.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If Josephus' Against Apion had been lost, many of the most virulent anti-Jewish passages from antiquity would have been unknown to us.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“According to Langmuir, rational conflict involves the ubiquitous jostling among groups for real advantages in everyday life, advantages of resources, power, and prestige; non-rational conflict involves the struggle among religious groups over the non-rational doctrines and beliefs that form the essence of religious identity; irrational conflict involves exploitation of “the other” in order to butt”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Langmuir 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“For Langmuir, the term “anti-Semitism” properly designates irrational anti-Jewish perceptions designed to suppress the doubts of believers, whether those believers were 12th-and 13th-century Christians living within a Christian religious context or 19th-and 20th-century anti-Semites living within the new secular context of European society.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Langmuir 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“According to Hippolytus, Rome is the fourth empire mentioned in Dan 2 : 40 and therefore has its role within the history of salvation (Comm.Dan.ii.12.6-7).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Comm.Dan.ii.12.6-7
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Thus, for Langmuir, the term “anti-Judaism” is a valid term, which points to the reality of theological -i.e., non-rational -dispute between Christians and Jews over the ages.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Langmuir 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this way, Europe's Jews became emblematic of the changes that were so distasteful to some Europeans.Awareness of the Jewish role in the changes engulfing Europe reinforced resistance to the new.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In fact, claimed the anti-Semites, the Jews were only secondarily a religious community.More fundamentally, they constituted a biological group -a community of racial Semites -locked in profound conflict with the dominant European community of racial Aryans.”
plain- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To speak of anti-semitism as if it were some kind of ahistorical virus is only the obverse of the genuinely anti-semitism tendency to find the cause of conflict in the Jewish, or semitic, character.It is also to fail to appreciate the contingent character of history.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The situation was more complex: a considerable number of converts from the upper class seem to have been involved, raising suspicions of active proselytizing.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These correlated with the theory of natural slavery and related attitudes towards foreigners which formed the framework in which imperialism could flourish free from moral restraint.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“According to Valerius Maximus (1.3.3;Stern 1974Stern -1984: vol. 1, 357-60) : vol. 1, 357-60) Jewish missionaries were expelled from Rome in 139 BCE.The expulsion was ordered by the praetor peregrinus.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Valerius Maximus (1.3.3;Stern 1974Stern -1984: vol. 1, 357-60)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Obviously Jews and Judaism have never been marginal for Christianity and Christians, since their self-definition is rooted in Jewish origins both historically and also theologically, by reason of the Christian Holy Scripture, the double canon of the Old and the New Testament.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Biblical, imaginary, and contemporary Jews were thus identified with each other in various ways, much to the detriment of the latter.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although books of the NT have also been read as evidence which suggests how entrenched the Christian faith is in Judaism and how close both religions are, the anti-Judaic reception has more or less shaped Christianity's attitude to Jews and Judaism through the centuries.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The wider social context for anti-Jewish activities is the endemic violence of the so-called pax Romana.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The event seems connected to a reaction against popular astrological practices.The expulsion reflects the concern of the Roman ruling class about the diffusion of Eastern cults.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is clear that the Jewish claim to be chosen was not understood; the Greek and Roman perspective focused on external behavior in cultural, political, daily and economic life.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The most characteristic urban form of popular protest, for lack of a better term, is the “city mob” (Hobsbawm: 108-25): large public gatherings of common people coming together to seek redress from the ruling elite for some social or economic grievance, often expressing their dissatisfaction by means of riot or rebellion.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hobsbawm: 108-25
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Philosophical paideia, finally, particularly its Platonizing strains, set the terms of learned theology, and thereby contributed crucially to Christian groundswells of anti-Jewish rhetoric.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The indubitable fact that the NT has been time and again an integral part of Christian enmity and hatred towards Jews and Judaism in various forms and patterns would not have been possible without the hostile context within which the emerging Christian identity developed historically, over against the Jews and Judaism.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Dangerously, “foreign” groups or “others” easily become targets, as the real tyrants cannot realistically be confronted.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Read canonically and in an already established anti-Judaic context the NT has indeed forced readers from late antiquity until today to hold hostile attitudes towards Jews and Judaism in everyday communications, in commentaries, sermons, theological tractates, let alone in books of the special literary Adversus-Judaeosgenre.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore one can speak of Christian enmity as a tragedy of nearness.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Investigation reveals not so much a history of anti-Semitism as a history of ignorance and intellectual laziness; a lack of effort to consider the other's point of view.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Their withdrawal from the gentile environment led to accusations of general misanthropy and xenophobia, as well as unbelief and superstition.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Greeks and Romans feared the real success of Jews in the midst of society; Jewish exclusiveness provided ample pretext for charges and actions against Jews in terms of a supposed monstrous conspiracy against Romankind and the values shared by Roman civilization.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The fear of being conquered by the vanquished is part of the imperial mentality.
In the paper
“The fact that relatively long periods of seemingly peaceful co-existence were punctuated by episodes of violence in pre-modern Europe does not necessarily mean, as some scholars -esp. of Spanish Jewryhave claimed that Christians and Jews lived together based on mutual tolerance or even convivencia; rather, as the anthropologist Robert Hayden has suggested, they may well have co-existed in a”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Robert Hayden
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The explicitly anti-Semitic National Socialist propaganda films of the late 1930s and early 1940s radicalized Christian anti-Judaism along racist lines.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Jews' refusal to relinquish their distinct faith and practice was interpreted as violent hatred of all things Christian and”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is at this moment in history, however, that the Jew begins to be racially rather than religiously defined.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Luther has often been blamed for later German anti-Semitism (e.g., via the Nazis' use of some of Luther's writings), an ex-post-facto explanation that does not do justice to Luther's complex relationship to Judaism.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These licensed violence against Jews, and dispossession and expulsion throughout the remaining area of Jewish settlement in the west.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Besides its political impact, Nazi ideology transformed Judaism from a predominantly religious category into a racial one.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The policy of annihilation of the Jews caused such revulsion in the post-World War II period that open brutal anti-Semitism became unacceptable in polite enlightened societies, but has nonetheless persisted in more covert forms or in non-mainstream settings.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
By the late 19th century, an enormous storehouse of anti-Jewish literature, art, and folklore had evolved throughout the Western world, especially in the Christian societies of Europe.
“By the late 19th century, an enormous storehouse of anti-Jewish literature, art, and folklore had evolved throughout the Western world, especially in the Christian societies of Europe.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Rapid social change is disruptive at all times and places.
“Rapid social change is disruptive at all times and places, and 19th-century Europe proved no exception to this general rule.”
The paper relies on this without support.
In the Roman world, religion and ethnic loyalties were inseparable.
“In the Roman world, religion and ethnic loyalties were inseparable.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The fear of being conquered by the vanquished is part of the imperial mentality.
“The fear of being conquered by the vanquished is part of the imperial mentality, and it typically has the characteristics of many forms of group hatred.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Difference is essential to group conflict.
“Difference is essential to group conflict, but difference does not always result in conflict.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Antagonism and social tensions cannot be reduced to a single cause.
“Antagonism and social tensions cannot be reduced to a single cause, and must be considered from a variety of points of view, as many areas of life are involved (customs, religion, commerce, ideals, as well as group and individual interests).”
Citations
Cites
The Jews in Roman imperial legislation
Linder, A. (1987) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 531
Lewis, T. N., & Trachtenberg, J. (1944) · The Jewish Quarterly Review · doi:10.2307/1452568 · Cited by 82
Christian anti-Judaism: polemics and policies
Fredriksen, P., & Irshai, O. (2006) · The Cambridge History of Judaism · doi:10.1017/chol9780521772488.040 · Cited by 67
Campbell, J. C., & Lewis, B. L. (1986) · Foreign Affairs · doi:10.2307/20043049 · Cited by 64
Jewish Flesh and Christian Spirit in Athanasius of Alexandria
Brakke, D. (2001) · Journal of early Christian studies · doi:10.1353/earl.2001.0055 · Cited by 56
National Socialism in the Arab Near East Between 1933 and 1939
Wild, S. M. (1985) · Die Welt des Islams · doi:10.1163/157006085x00053 · Cited by 31
Shapiro, J. (1995) · doi:10.7312/shap17866 · Cited by 11
National Socialism in the Arab near East between 1933 and 1939
Wild, S. (1985) · Die Welt des Islams · doi:10.2307/1571079
Research works printed but not linked: 3
- [5]5. ■ J. Gager, The Origins of Anti-Semitism (New York 1983). ■ B. Isaac, The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity (Princeton, N.J. 2004). ■ J. Lieu, Image and Reality (Edinburgh 1996). ■ O. Limor/G. G. Stroumsa (eds.), Contra Iudaeos (Tübingen 1996).
- [10]10. U. Rubin, "Jews and Judaism," EQ 3 (Leiden 2003) 21-34. ■ A. Sachedina "The Qur a¯n and other reli- gions," in The Cambridge Companion to the Qur a¯n (ed. J. D. McAuliffe; Cambridge 2006) 291-309.
- [13]13. Göran Larsson VI. Other Religions Outside the Christian world, anti-Judaism was vir- tually unknown in medieval times. In the modern and postmodern world, both religious anti-Judaism Bibliography: ■ G. K. Anderson, The Legend of the Wandering Jew (Providence, R.I. 1965). ■ L. Besserman "Ideology, An- tisemitism, and Chaucer's Prioress's Tale," The Chaucer Re- view 36 (2001) 48-72. ■ B. Cheyette Constructions of "the Jew" in English Literature and Society (Cambridge 1993). ■ H. Maccoby "Antisemitism," in A Dictionary of Biblical Interpreta- tion (eds. R. J. Coggins/J. L. Houlden; London 1992) 32-34.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Nietzsche and the Jewish Jesus: A Reflection on Holy Envy
Sax, B. E. (2018) · Pathways for ecumenical and interreligious dialogue · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-76108-4_2
Holocaust Museums at a Crossroads: Ethical Debates and Moral Obligations
Sievers, L. A. (2013) · doi:10.18130/v3kb9f
Metadata
- Authors
- Ariel, Y., Botha, P., Brummitt, M., Chazan, R., Forward, M., Frederiksen, P., Gow, A., Larsson, G., Schneider-Quindeau, W., & Stegemann, E. W.
- ORCID
- Larsson, Göran
- Venue
- Encyclopedia of the Bible Online
- Publisher
- De Gruyter
- Published
- 2019-10-25
- OpenAlex
- W2260895163
- Cited by
- 2
- References
- 8
- Type
- reference entry
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Locations
- Encyclopedia of the Bible Online (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Religious studies › Religion, Theology, History, Judaism, Christianity
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Religious studies › Biblical Studies and Interpretation
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › German legal, social, and political studies
- Keywords
- anti-Judaism, antisemitism, Judaism, Christian attitudes toward Jews
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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