Anti-Judaism and Anti-Semitism

In the paper

“Treatises to prove this alleged biological disparity and struggle multiplied.These treatises were steeped in the new genetic and racist science that emerged in 19th-century Europe”

In the paper

“Commodian knows of Nero as Antichrist (Instr.i.41.5-13), but he also writes of two Antichrists (Apol.834-940), i.e., of Nero redivivus and “the King from the East.””

What the sources say

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  cites Instr.i.41.5-13
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  cites Apol.834-940

In the paper

“It was under these circumstances that the term “anti-Judaism” came into being.The new term pointed to the reality of Christian-Jewish tensions, but suggested that Christian opposition to Judaism as a religious faith was by no means racist, irrational, or destructive.”

In the paper

“Jews became prominent in a number of innovative sectors of the European economy, with some of them (like the Rothschilds) achieving heights of success and power.”

In the paper

“The classic example of such pioneering was the Jewish role in the credit markets of medieval Europe.”

In the paper

“Often a Judeo-centric view of antiquity leads to selective discussion.”

In the paper

“In the debate on the anti-Jewish sentiments and actions reported in documents of Greco-Roman antiquity some scholars consider modern concepts (such as “anti-Semitism”) of little help in historical investigation of antiquity; others claim to recog-nize a unique ancient antipathy directed at the Jews specifically (for review of issues see Cohen; Yavetz; Langmuir; Schäfer: 1-8, 197-211).”

What the sources say

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  cites Cohen
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  cites Yavetz
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  cites Langmuir

In the paper

“Previously, Jews had lived separately, had engaged in restricted economic outlets, and had fashioned their own cultures.Now the edifice of separatism was dismantled.”

In the paper

“Christians over the ages had opposed Jews and the dangers allegedly emanating from them as an outgrowth of religious faith and praxis.”

In the paper

“Many resented the new notion of a secular polity and were dismayed at the diminution of the role of Christianity in the life of society.”

In the paper

“Many of these statements are quotations in polemical texts and there are often questions regarding authenticity.”

In the paper

“As all prior anti-Jewish sentiment became labeled anti-Semitic, a term now bearing inflammatory negativism, many observers felt that some of the phenomena caught in the new and broad net did not fit appropriately under the designation anti-Semitic.Especially problematic for such observers was the inclusion of traditional Christian-Jewish religious jousting under the rubric of anti-Semitism.”

In the paper

“Commodian puts it in a slightly different way: Rome will finally be conquered by the barbarians (Apol.810-22), but not within his own lifetime, so that there will be still time for preparation .”

What the sources say

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  cites Apol.810-22

In the paper

“As this new political structure emerged, the Jews posed significant problems.The first was simply deciding whether the new secular states and societies would include Jews as an element at all.This question was fairly quickly decided in the affirmative.”

In the paper

“Throughout these writings, the near fall of the Roman Empire is predicted in stark terms, and the eminent sign of the upcoming end of the world is the rise of the Antichrist, i.e., the one emperor who is famous for his cruelty and his persecution of the Christians: Nero”

In the paper

“What eventuated was a set of demands on European Jews to acculturate effectively into 19thcentury Europe, demands that were rapidly met by most Jews.”

In the paper

“The most ambitious effort to redefine the term anti-Semitism was that of the late G. I. Langmuir.In his numerous articles and in a major booklength study -History, Religion, and Antisemitism (Langmuir 1990), Langmuir attempted to draw a distinction among three types of conflict with “the other” -rational conflict, non-rational conflict, and irrational conflict.”

What the sources say

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  cites Langmuir 1990

In the paper

“The term was coined by anti-Semites to highlight the innovation in their grasp of the Jewish issue and was proudly affixed to a number of political organizations and publications.”

In the paper

“These include: the development of broad persecutory tendencies in western European society at this juncture, fostered by a new class of functionaries intent on expanding their power and prestige as protectors of Christendom (Moore 1987); the growth of religious doubt in sectors of European society, with alleged Jewish crimes serving to quell those doubts (Langmuir 1990); the efflorescence of”

What the sources say

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  cites Moore 1987
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  cites Langmuir 1990
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  cites Abulafia 1995

In the paper

“Armed with this new understanding of the “Jewish issue,” political movements grounded in racial theory in general and its anti-Semitic implications in particular began to spring up, in some instances achieving considerable popular support.”

In the paper

“There has been considerable agreement as to the necessity of drawing distinctions within the broad spectrum of historic and contemporary anti-Jewish attitudes and behaviors.”

In the paper

“For such Europeans, the reality of Jews as equal citizens, which obviously contravened the historic consensus in Christendom that Jews posed dangers and had to be rigorously segregated in order to minimize these dangers, was perceived as a striking deviation from the past, indeed a departure that now created an insidious threat to Europe and its Christian heritage.”

In the paper

“One solution to this quandary, somewhat popular in scholarly circles, has been to restrict use of the term anti-Semitism to actual instances of 19ththrough 21st-century racially grounded writings and actions, while using other locutions for prior anti-Jewish attitudes and behaviors.”

In the paper

“Certain privileges were granted the Jews by Julius Caesar and Augustus, which remained in effect after their time.”

What the sources say

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  cites Julius Caesar
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  cites Augustus

In the paper

“Under the new 19th-century circumstances, Jews were no longer forced into limited niches in the economy.Nonetheless, Jews were not welcomed into all sectors of economic endeavor.Old and traditional areas of economic activity remained relatively closed to them, driving them -again quite usefully -into the new.”

In the paper

“Methodologically the debate is plagued by a tendency to paraphrase ancient sources (instead of interpreting them), as well as proof-texting and apologetics.”

In the paper

“Subsequent to World War II, the term “anti-Semite” has almost never been embraced by anyone with pride (as was the case earlier) and has instead become a vehicle for castigation, affixed polemically to darken reputations.”

In the paper

“The evidence is complex: a great many of the statements are found in fragments; we do not know the occasion, the proper context or the original import of the remarks.”

In the paper

“However, Rome was unable to hold back popular anger when townspeople and nobles chose to blame Jews for unfortunate accidents, natural disasters or other catastrophes, nor could it police local laws, judicial practice or culture.”

In the paper

“Although apparently not embedded in existing pagan anti-Judaic reading formations, the Gospel of John leans towards a kind of demonizing of the Jews (esp.John 8 : 31-47).”

In the paper

“The roots of this polemic lie in pre-Hellenic Egypt; broad literary testimony of this motif can be traced from Hecataeus of Abdera (ca.300 BCE) onward: Apollonius Molon, Diodorus Siculus, Lysimachus, Apion, Chaeremon (see Gabba; Feldman: 123-76; Stern 1976).”

What the sources say

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  cites Gabba
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  cites Feldman: 123-76
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  cites Stern 1976

In the paper

“Much of the anti-Jewish action in the Greco-Roman era was sporadic, often limited and connected to localized conflict.”

In the paper

“Despite official rhetoric, discord, feuds and factions characterized Roman urban conditions.”

In the paper

“At stake is what the Greek and Roman authors made of alterity; tragically we find an unwillingness to acknowledge it and a lack of effort to establish meaningful group relations.”

In the paper

“In 38 CE, a mocking of King Agrippa I led to an announcement by governor Flaccus in which Jews were declared foreigners and aliens (see Philo, Flacc.).Mob action followed with severe and tragic effects for Alexandrian Jewry.”

What the sources say

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  cites Philo, Flacc.

In the paper

“Not to forget the various horrible violent actions against Jews perpetrated by Christians against Jews, which were often justified by reference to the NT, especially to the myth of the Jews as pretended Christ-killers.”

In the paper

“Though several collegia (political associations) were banned at various times (e.g., 46 BCE), the synagogues in Rome were specifically exempted (Josephus, Ant.xiv.213-16, esp.215).”

What the sources say

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  cites Josephus, Ant.xiv.213-16

In the paper

“It is only after the Holocaust and increasingly since the 1960s that this reading was questioned categorically and on a pronounced hermeneutical basis, mainly in three regards.”

In the paper

“One cannot deny that there are texts in the NT which intentionally served anti-Judaic reading-formations.”

In the paper

“Expulsion also took place under Claudius, but several problems relating to the sources are diffi-cult to evaluate (Smallwood: 210-16; Schwartz: 94-96; Botermann).”

What the sources say

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  cites Smallwood: 210-16
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  cites Schwartz: 94-96
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  cites Botermann

In the paper

“The Ten Tribes (or, in a German-language version of that story, the evil, cannibalistic”

In the paper

“The central themes in the literary polemic regarding Judaism are the origin of the Jews in Egypt (interpreted as the expulsion of lepers), their special religious concepts, and their way of life characterized by monotheism, abstinence from impure foods, the Sabbath and circumcision.”

In the paper

“In the Middle Ages, an expanded version of that supersessionist reading came to dominate popular perceptions, particularly in the cities and towns of Europe.”

In the paper

“The use of the NT as a source of categorical or essentialist enmity and of historically contingent polemics against Jews has a long and deeply-rooted history.”

In the paper

“In fact all three versions are to be found in 1 Thess 2 : 15.”

In the paper

“Later medieval readings of the Bible, including Luther's, continued to insist on the culpable role of Jews in Jesus' Passion and death, and on ideas that Gavin Langmuir has called”

What the sources say

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  cites Gavin Langmuir

In the paper

“legal and soteriological status of Jews in Christian polities was constantly deteriorating over this period.”

In the paper

“Actions were taken against non-citizens, and about 4,000 Jewish men were conscripted into the military.”

In the paper

“Horror stories about Jews already are to be found in antiquity .”

In the paper

“Not all the intellectuals of the Greco-Roman eras agreed on viewing the practices and beliefs of the Jews negatively; a remarkable number among the philosophic schools (especially of the neo-Pythagoreans and neo-Platonists) admired them.”

In the paper

“Exclusively negative attitudes are not dominant.”

In the paper

“A serious conflict developed in 19 CE (Tacitus, Ann.ii.85.4;Suetonius, Tib.36; Cassius Dio lvii.18.5) that resulted in another expulsion of Jews from Rome.”

What the sources say

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  cites Tacitus, Ann.ii.85.4
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  cites Suetonius, Tib.36
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  cites Cassius Dio lvii.18.5

In the paper

“Continuous rivalries between associations, and the precarious supply of food often led to social instability, marked by riots and lynching.”

In the paper

“Tiberius, an opponent to Oriental cults, had earlier the same year violently suppressed Isis worship (Moehring).”

What the sources say

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  cites Moehring

In the paper

“These books and the images they contained (and inspired) depicted Jews as actively participating in the trial and Passion of Christ, as hostile to Christianity, and esp.as eschatological threats in the form of the Ten Lost Tribes.”

In the paper

“In the process, the fact that Jesus himself was a pious Jew is entirely obfuscated.”

In the paper

“While Protestants offered new translations and interpretations of the biblical texts, most mainline Protestants followed the historical arguments of Christianity against Judaism and retained the cultural perceptions of European Society on Jews.”

In the paper

“Veit Harlan's film Jud Süß, also produced in 1940, recounts the story of the so-called”

In the paper

“Broadly speaking, the Jew in literature has been a Wandering Jew: ubiquitous; various; a continuing witness to otherness.”

In the paper

“Mel Gibson's The Passion of the Christ (2004) naively incorporates traditional anti-Jewish motifs in its mystic and gory representation of the Passion, seeking to assert a specific image of Jesus.”

In the paper

“Only in the late 20th century did major Christian groups and thinkers grant Judaism theological legitimacy.”

In the paper

“With the rise of Arab nationalism and the outbreak of the Second World War, Nazi propaganda was also circulated and supported by many Arab leaders.”

In the paper

“In combination with the traditional anti-Jewish motifs of host desecration and world conspiracy, social ills of every kind were blamed on the Jews.”

In the paper

“Anti-Semitic policies reached a peak under the Nazi regime in Germany, 1933-45, as well as a number of fascist allies of the Nazis.”

In the paper

“The Protocols of the Elders of Zion has been available in Japanese since 1924, and provides a major source of anti-Semitic writing by Japanese of many religious persuasions, including not only Christians but also Shintoists, Buddhists, and members of New Religious Movements.”

In the paper

“Such a breakthrough in the attitudes of Christians towards Jews and Judaism occurred in the 1960s, both contemporaneously with and in the wake of Concilium Vatican II, the major Roman Catholic council that transformed Christian life in the second half of the 20th century.”

In the paper

“Since the late 18th century the Enlightenment, modernization and secularization have also im-pacted the attitudes of Western Christian societies towards the Jews.”

In the paper

“For instance, The Protocol of the Elders of Zion, a”

In the paper

“Anti-Semitism has persisted well into the 21st century, although much of the negative incitements occur today in non-European nations.”

In the paper

“During the medieval period, it was usually easier for Jews to live under Muslim than Christian rule, for although pogroms did take place in the Muslim world, notably in Granada in 1066, expressions of anti-Judaism were less frequent.”

In the paper

“In early Christian literature the Jew represents both the vehicle of revelation and its rejection.”

What the sources say

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  cites Origen, Cels.ii.75
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  cites Augustine, Adv.Jud. 5 and 7

In the paper

“Anti-Jewish polemicists transformed older Christian arguments against Judaism and Jews into secular ones, attacking Jews on social, political and ideological grounds.”

In the paper

“Some Protestants, however, developed a new interpretation of the Jews and their role in history, viewing the Jews as the chosen people and the objects of biblical prophecies about a restored Davidic kingdom in the land of Israel.”

In the paper

“For centuries, the Christian church interpreted the Bible in a way hostile to Jews in the manner of Gibson.”

In the paper

“Certainly, in Shylock Shakespeare transforms the stock character of the villainous Jew (which includes Barabas in Marlow's 1592 The Jew of Malta) into an un-stereotypically complex individual who elicits sympathy from the spectator.”

In the paper

“Luther's pamphlets of 1543 called for Jews to convert or be locked in their synagogues and burned alive”

In the paper

“Although Jews are stereotypically described as dominating international finance and controlling the media, many Japanese admire rather than hate and fear them.”

In the paper

“and racial anti-Semitism can be found in societies where few Jews live.Japan provides a notable example.”

In the paper

“Protestant opinions on the Jews have, from the beginning, been diverse and complex with different Protestant groups and thinkers developing different opinions on Judaism and Jews.”

In the paper

“In the latter decades of the 19th century theories on race and peoplehood also affected attitudes towards the Jews, reconstructing the dynamics of Christian-Jewish relations in new racial and nationalist terms.”

In the paper

“The more appreciative Christian attitudes, however, were also not devoid of elements of anger at the Jewish refusal to accept Jesus and of negative stereotypes of Jews, which had become strongly rooted in Christian culture.”

In the paper

“But the Jews are often used as scapegoats in Middle Eastern politics to explain local, regional and global problems, conflicts and political failures.”

In the paper

“While the first category includes, e.g., medieval polemical debates, modern anti-Semitism is based on secular, nationalistic and racial ideologies that gained a foothold in the Muslim world from the second half of the 18th century.”

In the paper

“In the view of the anti-Semites, Jews did in fact pose a serious threat to Europe, but that threat did not flow from their religious identity, as earlier observers had misguidedly suggested.The threat came from a hitherto unsuspected direction -the Jews as a biological community hostile and dangerous to Aryan European societies.”

In the paper

“Among others, Hippolytus identifies the emperor as the κατ χων (2 Thess 2 : 6-7) and the empire as last stronghold against the Antichrist (Comm.Dan.iv.21.2-3).”

What the sources say

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  cites Comm.Dan.iv.21.2-3

In the paper

“Similarly the Epistle to Diognetus points out that Christians “participate in everything as citizens, and endure everything as foreigners” (Diogn.5.5): They belong to heaven, but live on earth and thus are citizens of the empire, too.”

What the sources say

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  cites Diogn.5.5

In the paper

“In any case, to view the emperor as the Antichrist is clearly the exception, while to perceive of the empire as the genuine context of Christian life is the rule in the political thought of the early church.”

In the paper

“In the wake of the American and French revolutions, European societies had attempted to move beyond centuries of religiously rooted strife and bloodshed by creating a new conception of the state as a secular entity, governed by rational rules that enable humans to live peacefully and productively with one another.”

In the paper

“The core insight advanced by this term was that the “Jewish problem” had over the ages been misconstrued through a misguided focus on religious issues.”

In the paper

“If Josephus' Against Apion had been lost, many of the most virulent anti-Jewish passages from antiquity would have been unknown to us.”

In the paper

“According to Langmuir, rational conflict involves the ubiquitous jostling among groups for real advantages in everyday life, advantages of resources, power, and prestige; non-rational conflict involves the struggle among religious groups over the non-rational doctrines and beliefs that form the essence of religious identity; irrational conflict involves exploitation of “the other” in order to butt”

What the sources say

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  cites Langmuir 1990

In the paper

“For Langmuir, the term “anti-Semitism” properly designates irrational anti-Jewish perceptions designed to suppress the doubts of believers, whether those believers were 12th-and 13th-century Christians living within a Christian religious context or 19th-and 20th-century anti-Semites living within the new secular context of European society.”

What the sources say

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  cites Langmuir 1990

In the paper

“According to Hippolytus, Rome is the fourth empire mentioned in Dan 2 : 40 and therefore has its role within the history of salvation (Comm.Dan.ii.12.6-7).”

What the sources say

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  cites Comm.Dan.ii.12.6-7

In the paper

“Thus, for Langmuir, the term “anti-Judaism” is a valid term, which points to the reality of theological -i.e., non-rational -dispute between Christians and Jews over the ages.”

What the sources say

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  cites Langmuir 1990

In the paper

“In this way, Europe's Jews became emblematic of the changes that were so distasteful to some Europeans.Awareness of the Jewish role in the changes engulfing Europe reinforced resistance to the new.”

In the paper

“In fact, claimed the anti-Semites, the Jews were only secondarily a religious community.More fundamentally, they constituted a biological group -a community of racial Semites -locked in profound conflict with the dominant European community of racial Aryans.”

In the paper

“To speak of anti-semitism as if it were some kind of ahistorical virus is only the obverse of the genuinely anti-semitism tendency to find the cause of conflict in the Jewish, or semitic, character.It is also to fail to appreciate the contingent character of history.”

In the paper

“The situation was more complex: a considerable number of converts from the upper class seem to have been involved, raising suspicions of active proselytizing.”

In the paper

“These correlated with the theory of natural slavery and related attitudes towards foreigners which formed the framework in which imperialism could flourish free from moral restraint.”

In the paper

“According to Valerius Maximus (1.3.3;Stern 1974Stern -1984: vol. 1, 357-60) : vol. 1, 357-60) Jewish missionaries were expelled from Rome in 139 BCE.The expulsion was ordered by the praetor peregrinus.”

What the sources say

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  cites Valerius Maximus (1.3.3;Stern 1974Stern -1984: vol. 1, 357-60)

In the paper

“Obviously Jews and Judaism have never been marginal for Christianity and Christians, since their self-definition is rooted in Jewish origins both historically and also theologically, by reason of the Christian Holy Scripture, the double canon of the Old and the New Testament.”

In the paper

“Biblical, imaginary, and contemporary Jews were thus identified with each other in various ways, much to the detriment of the latter.”

In the paper

“Although books of the NT have also been read as evidence which suggests how entrenched the Christian faith is in Judaism and how close both religions are, the anti-Judaic reception has more or less shaped Christianity's attitude to Jews and Judaism through the centuries.”

In the paper

“The wider social context for anti-Jewish activities is the endemic violence of the so-called pax Romana.”

In the paper

“The event seems connected to a reaction against popular astrological practices.The expulsion reflects the concern of the Roman ruling class about the diffusion of Eastern cults.”

In the paper

“It is clear that the Jewish claim to be chosen was not understood; the Greek and Roman perspective focused on external behavior in cultural, political, daily and economic life.”

In the paper

“The most characteristic urban form of popular protest, for lack of a better term, is the “city mob” (Hobsbawm: 108-25): large public gatherings of common people coming together to seek redress from the ruling elite for some social or economic grievance, often expressing their dissatisfaction by means of riot or rebellion.”

What the sources say

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  cites Hobsbawm: 108-25

In the paper

“Philosophical paideia, finally, particularly its Platonizing strains, set the terms of learned theology, and thereby contributed crucially to Christian groundswells of anti-Jewish rhetoric.”

In the paper

“The indubitable fact that the NT has been time and again an integral part of Christian enmity and hatred towards Jews and Judaism in various forms and patterns would not have been possible without the hostile context within which the emerging Christian identity developed historically, over against the Jews and Judaism.”

In the paper

“Dangerously, “foreign” groups or “others” easily become targets, as the real tyrants cannot realistically be confronted.”

In the paper

“Read canonically and in an already established anti-Judaic context the NT has indeed forced readers from late antiquity until today to hold hostile attitudes towards Jews and Judaism in everyday communications, in commentaries, sermons, theological tractates, let alone in books of the special literary Adversus-Judaeosgenre.”

In the paper

“Therefore one can speak of Christian enmity as a tragedy of nearness.”

In the paper

“Investigation reveals not so much a history of anti-Semitism as a history of ignorance and intellectual laziness; a lack of effort to consider the other's point of view.”

In the paper

“Their withdrawal from the gentile environment led to accusations of general misanthropy and xenophobia, as well as unbelief and superstition.”

In the paper

“Greeks and Romans feared the real success of Jews in the midst of society; Jewish exclusiveness provided ample pretext for charges and actions against Jews in terms of a supposed monstrous conspiracy against Romankind and the values shared by Roman civilization.”

In the paper

“The fact that relatively long periods of seemingly peaceful co-existence were punctuated by episodes of violence in pre-modern Europe does not necessarily mean, as some scholars -esp. of Spanish Jewryhave claimed that Christians and Jews lived together based on mutual tolerance or even convivencia; rather, as the anthropologist Robert Hayden has suggested, they may well have co-existed in a”

What the sources say

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  cites Robert Hayden

In the paper

“The explicitly anti-Semitic National Socialist propaganda films of the late 1930s and early 1940s radicalized Christian anti-Judaism along racist lines.”

In the paper

“The Jews' refusal to relinquish their distinct faith and practice was interpreted as violent hatred of all things Christian and”

In the paper

“It is at this moment in history, however, that the Jew begins to be racially rather than religiously defined.”

In the paper

“Luther has often been blamed for later German anti-Semitism (e.g., via the Nazis' use of some of Luther's writings), an ex-post-facto explanation that does not do justice to Luther's complex relationship to Judaism.”

In the paper

“These licensed violence against Jews, and dispossession and expulsion throughout the remaining area of Jewish settlement in the west.”

In the paper

“Besides its political impact, Nazi ideology transformed Judaism from a predominantly religious category into a racial one.”

In the paper

“The policy of annihilation of the Jews caused such revulsion in the post-World War II period that open brutal anti-Semitism became unacceptable in polite enlightened societies, but has nonetheless persisted in more covert forms or in non-mainstream settings.”