The DOI matches its Crossref record; 41 of the 42 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
A Longitudinal Study of the Long-Term Consequences of Drinking during Pregnancy: Heavy In Utero Alcohol Exposure Disrupts the Normal Processes of Brain Development
Open accessAbstract
Exposure to alcohol in utero can cause birth defects, including face and brain abnormalities, and is the most common preventable cause of intellectual disabilities. Here we use structural magnetic resonance imaging to measure cortical volume change longitudinally in a cohort of human children and youth with prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) and a group of unexposed control subjects, demonstrating that the normal processes of brain maturation are disrupted in individuals whose mothers drank heavily during pregnancy. Trajectories of cortical volume change within children and youth with PAE differed from those of unexposed control subjects in posterior brain regions, particularly in the parietal cortex. In these areas, control children appear to show a particularly plastic cortex with a prolonged pattern of cortical volume increases followed by equally vigorous volume loss during adolescence, while the alcohol-exposed participants showed primarily volume loss, demonstrating decreased plasticity. Furthermore, smaller volume changes between scans were associated with lower intelligence and worse facial morphology in both groups, and were related to the amount of PAE during each trimester of pregnancy in the exposed group. This demonstrates that measures of IQ and facial dysmorphology predict, to some degree, the structural brain development that occurs in subsequent years. These results are encouraging in that interventions aimed at altering “experience” over time may improve brain trajectories in individuals with heavy PAE and possibly other neurodevelopmental disorders.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Ethanol consumption during pregnancy can trigger multiple forms of neurodevelopmental damage, including fetal alcohol syndrome in cases of heavy drinking [130, 140, 141].”
From The contribution of environmental exposure to the etiology of autism spectrum disorder (2019) · cites this paper as [140]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood
Gogtay, N., Giedd, J. N., Lusk, L., Hayashi, K. M., Greenstein, D., Vaituzis, A. C., Nugent, T. F., Herman, D. H., Clasen, L. S., Toga, A. W., et al. (2004) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0402680101 · Cited by 5,604 · cited 1×
“Parietal and occipital brain cortices are known to develop most rapidly between childhood and adolescence, whereas frontal and temporal cortices continue to mature between adolescence and adulthood (Sowell et al., 1999; Gogtay et al., 2004).”
BackgroundSynaptic density in human frontal cortex —Developmental changes and effects of aging
Peter R., H. (1979) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0006-8993(79)90349-4 · Cited by 2,645
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is characterized by a delay in cortical maturation
Shaw, P., Eckstrand, K., Sharp, W., Blumenthal, J., Lerch, J. P., Greenstein, D., Clasen, L., Evans, A., Giedd, J., & Rapoport, J. L. (2007) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0707741104 · Cited by 1,819
Intellectual ability and cortical development in children and adolescents
Shaw, P., Greenstein, D., Lerch, J., Clasen, L., Lenroot, R., Gogtay, N., Evans, A., Rapoport, J., & Giedd, J. (2006) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature04513 · Cited by 1,543
Highly accurate inverse consistent registration: A robust approach
Reuter, M., Rosas, H. D., & Fischl, B. R. (2010) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.07.020 · Cited by 1,443
In vivo evidence for post-adolescent brain maturation in frontal and striatal regions
Sowell, E. R., Thompson, P. M., Holmes, C. J., Jernigan, T. L., & Toga, A. W. (1999) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/13154 · Cited by 1,439
Self-citationHoyme, H. E., May, P. A., Kalberg, W. O., Kodituwakku, P. W., Gossage, J. P., Trujillo, P. M., Buckley, D. G., Miller, J. H., Aragón, A. S., Khaole, N., et al. (2005) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2004-0259 · Cited by 1,001
Self-citationStructural MRI of pediatric brain development: what have we learned and where are we going?
Giedd, J. N., & Rapoport, J. L. (2010) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2010.08.040 · Cited by 836
Thompson, P. M., Vidal, C., Giedd, J. N., Gochman, P., Blumenthal, J., Nicolson, R., Toga, A. W., & Rapoport, J. L. (2001) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.201243998 · Cited by 812
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: An Overview
Riley, E. P., Infante, M. A., & Warren, K. R. (2011) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-011-9166-x · Cited by 707
Self-citation
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- 10.1017/S0012162201000299 · DOI
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–164 of 164
Cognition and Emotion in Development
Bell, M. A., Wolfe, C. D., Diaz, A., & Liu, R. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-17332-6_15 · Cited by 17
Galván, A., & Tottenham, N. (2016) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119125556.devpsy218 · Cited by 14
Gilles de la Tourette syndrome
Cavanna, A. E. (2014) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.112.121467 · Cited by 13
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: Awareness to Insight in Just 50 Years
Charness, M. E. (2022) · Alcohol research · doi:10.35946/arcr.v42.1.05 · Cited by 14
Donald, K. A., Hendrikse, C. J., Roos, A., Wedderburn, C. J., Subramoney, S., Ringshaw, J. E., Bradford, L. E., Hoffman, N., Burd, T., Narr, K. L., et al. (2024) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2024.103572 · Cited by 12
Self-citationPopova, S., Dozet, D., Faulkner, M.-R., Howie, L., & Temple, V. K. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu16111655 · Cited by 12
Brain Volume in Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Over a 20-Year Span
Adolf Pfefferbaum, A., Sullivan, E. V., Pohl, K. M., Bischoff‐Grethe, A., Stoner, S. A., Moore, E. M., & Riley, E. P. (2023) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.43618 · Cited by 12
Self-citationTraver, S., Geoffray, M., Mazières, L., Geneviève, D., Michelon, C., Picot, M., & Baghdadli, A. (2020) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.11.005 · Cited by 11
Lebel, C. A., Gibbard, W. B., Tortorelli, C., Pei, J. R., Beaulieu, C., Bagshawe, M., & McMorris, C. A. (2021) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-051660 · Cited by 10
Self-citationLong, M., Kar, P., Forkert, N. D., Landman, B. A., Gibbard, W. B., Tortorelli, C., McMorris, C. A., Huo, Y., & Lebel, C. A. (2024) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2024.1379959 · Cited by 10
Self-citationTaylor, N. M., & Enns, L. N. (2017) · Biochemistry and Cell Biology · doi:10.1139/bcb-2017-0081 · Cited by 10
Yu, X., Dunstan, J., Jacobson, S. W., Molteno, C. D., Lindinger, N. M., Turesky, T. K., Meintjes, E. M., Jacobson, J. L., & Gaab, N. (2021) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2022.108188 · Cited by 10
Astrocyte Extracellular Matrix Modulates Neuronal Dendritic Development
Hashimoto, J. G., Margolies, N., Zhang, X., Karpf, J. A., Song, Y., Gorham, N., Davis, B. A., Zhang, F., Linhardt, R. J., Carbone, L., et al. (2025) · Glia · doi:10.1002/glia.70020 · Cited by 9
de Water, E., Krueger, A. M., Lindgren, C. W., Fuglestad, A. J., Rockhold, M. N., Sandness, K. E., Eckerle, J. K., Fink, B. A., Boys, C. J., & Wozniak, J. R. (2020) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2020.1798372 · Cited by 11
Effects of developmental alcohol exposure on cortical multisensory integration
Keum, D., Pultorak, K., Meredith, M. A., & Medina, A. E. (2023) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.15907 · Cited by 11
Tan, D. W., Foo, Y. Z., Downs, J. A., Finlay‐jones, A. L., Leonard, H., Licari, M. K., Mullan, N., Symons, M., Varcin, K. J., Whitehouse, A., et al. (2020) · Alcohol · doi:10.1016/j.alcohol.2020.03.010 · Cited by 9
Biffen, S. C., Dodge, N. C., Warton, C. M. R., Molteno, C. D., Jacobson, J. L., Meintjes, E. M., & Jacobson, S. W. (2022) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/acer.14795 · Cited by 8
Effects of ethanol-and choline-treated astrocytes on hippocampal neuron neurite outgrowth in vitro
Goeke, C. M., Hashimoto, J. G., Guizzetti, M., & Vitalone, A. (2021) · Science Progress · doi:10.1177/00368504211018943 · Cited by 9
Treit, S., Stolz, E., Rickard, J. N., McCreary, C. R., Bagshawe, M., Frayne, R., Lebel, C. A., Emery, D. J., & Beaulieu, C. (2022) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2022.826564 · Cited by 10
Self-citationEpigenetics in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
Basavarajappa, B. S. (2023) · Progress in molecular biology and translational science · doi:10.1016/bs.pmbts.2023.01.004 · Cited by 9
Scholten, C. M., Ghasoub, M., Geeraert, B., Joshi, S. H., Wedderburn, C. J., Roos, A., Subramoney, S., Hoffman, N., Narr, K. L., Woods, R. P., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnint.2024.1438888 · Cited by 7
Self-citationJohnson, S. K., von Sternberg, K. L., & Velasquez, M. M. (2016) · Women s Health Issues · doi:10.1016/j.whi.2016.09.013 · Cited by 6
Gut Microbiome, Neuroinflammation, and Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: Insights from Rodent Models
Busayli, A. M., Xu, W., Raffah, G. A., & Chen, G. (2025) · Biology · doi:10.3390/biology14060593 · Cited by 5
Development of brain atlases for early-to-middle adolescent collision-sport athletes
Zou, Y., Zhu, W., Yang, H., Jang, I., Vike, N. L., Svaldi, D. O., Shenk, T. E., Poole, V. N., Breedlove, E. L., Tamer, G. G., et al. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-85518-6 · Cited by 4
High-resolution imaging in studies of alcohol effect on prenatal development
Mbolle, A. M., Thapa, S., Bukiya, A. N., & Jiang, H. (2023) · Advances in Drug and Alcohol Research · doi:10.3389/adar.2023.10790 · Cited by 5
Miles, M., Warton, F. L., Meintjes, E. M., Molteno, C. D., Jacobson, J. L., Jacobson, S. W., & Warton, C. M. R. (2021) · Frontiers in Neuroanatomy · doi:10.3389/fnana.2021.639800 · Cited by 5
Brown, J., Jonason, A. B., Asp, E. W., McGinn, V., Carter, M. N., Spiller, V., & Jozan, A. (2021) · Behavioral Sciences & the Law · doi:10.1002/bsl.2540 · Cited by 5
Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)
Lebel, C. A., & Ware, A. L. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-20792-1_25 · Cited by 5
Self-citationLøhaugen, G. C. C., Flak, M. M., Gerstner, T. A., Sundberg, C., Lerdal, B., & Skranes, J. S. (2015) · Substance Abuse Research and Treatment · doi:10.4137/sart.s23542 · Cited by 5
Diagnosis of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: German guideline version 2024
Landgraf, M. N., Schmucker, C. M., Heinen, F., Ziegler, A., Kopp, I., & Strieker, S. (2024) · European Journal of Paediatric Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.ejpn.2024.11.002 · Cited by 4
Rau, J. M. H., Sundermann, B., Pfleiderer, B., Nayyeri, M. D., Garde, S., Weglage, J., & Feldmann, R. (2023) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/acer.15025 · Cited by 3
Passive Addiction and Teratogenic Effects
Woodward, L. J., McPherson, C. C., & Volpe, J. J. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-42876-7.00038-7 · Cited by 5
Uncovering the complexity of Tourette syndrome, little by little
Gorman, D. A., & Abi‐Jaoude, E. (2014) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.113.135996 · Cited by 4
Mucignat‐Caretta, C., & Soravia, G. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2023.1266766 · Cited by 5
Hendrikse, C. J., Joshi, S. H., Ringshaw, J. E., Bradford, L. E., Roos, A., Wedderburn, C. J., Hoffman, N., Burd, T., Narr, K. L., Woods, R. P., et al. (2025) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/acer.70048 · Cited by 3
Self-citationSubcortical volume in middle-aged adults with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders
Bischoff‐Grethe, A., Stoner, S. A., Riley, E. P., & Moore, E. M. (2024) · Brain Communications · doi:10.1093/braincomms/fcae273 · Cited by 3
Self-citationImaging Brain Structure in FASD
Treit, S., & Beaulieu, C. (2018) · International library of ethics, law, and the new medicine/The international library of ethics, law, and the new medicine · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-71755-5_6 · Cited by 3
Maxwell, J. R., Yellowhair, T. R., Davies, S., Rogers, D. A., McCarson, K. L., Savage, D. D., & Jantzie, L. L. (2020) · PubMed · Cited by 3
Biology of environmental effects
Rutter, M. L., & Azis‐Clauson, C. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118381953.ch23 · Cited by 3
Thinking about intellectual disability care : an intersubjective approach
Capri, C. (2016) · SUNScholar (Stellenbosch University) · Cited by 3
Thapa, S., Schneider, E. H., Mysiewicz, S. C., Dopico, A. M., & Bukiya, A. N. (2025) · Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research · doi:10.1177/25785125251392472 · Cited by 2
Impact of Prenatal Alcohol Exposure on Cerebral Cortex Development
Oskera, L., Charlet‐Briart, M., Tielens, S., Nguyen, L., & Laguesse, S. (2026) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-12741-9_6 · Cited by 2
Prenatal Exposure to Tobacco and Alcohol Alters Development of the Neonatal Auditory System
Sininger, Y. S., Condon, C. G., Gimenez, L. A., Shuffrey, L. C., Myers, M. M., Elliott, A. J., Thai, T., Nugent, J. D., Pini, N., Sania, A., et al. (2021) · Developmental Neuroscience · doi:10.1159/000518130 · Cited by 2
Roeske, J., Long, X., Perdue, M. V., Long, M., Geeraert, B., Ghasoub, M., Yeates, K. O., McMorris, C. A., Pei, J. R., Gibbard, W. B., et al. (2025) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2025.08.016 · Cited by 3
Self-citationPhan, T., Yana, J., Fabre, J., Yana, L. F., Renard, V., & Ferrat, É. (2020) · Revue d Épidémiologie et de Santé Publique · doi:10.1016/j.respe.2020.06.003 · Cited by 2
Non-Smad, BMP-dependent signaling protects against the effects of acute ethanol toxicity
Habeeb, N., Najafi, S., & Perron, J. C. (2021) · Toxicology Letters · doi:10.1016/j.toxlet.2021.10.009 · Cited by 2
Tousley, A. R., Deykin, I., Koc, B., Yeh, P. W. L., & Yeh, H. H. (2025) · eNeuro · doi:10.1523/eneuro.0448-24.2025 · Cited by 1
Persistent Alterations of Brain and Behavior in Children With Low Prenatal Alcohol Exposure
Long, X., & Lebel, C. (2025) · Biological Psychiatry Global Open Science · doi:10.1016/j.bpsgos.2025.100648 · Cited by 1
Self-citationWhat Psychological Therapies Might Be Helpful?
Taylor, N. M. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-73966-9_27 · Cited by 1
Cortical Morphology in Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders
Guio, F. D., Meintjes, E. M., Mangin, J., & Germanaud, D. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800213-1.00052-3 · Cited by 1
Yoneyama, T., Utsumi, A., Ishizaki, A., Takahashi, M., Yamaguchi, S., Asami, T., & Hironaka, S. (2022) · Pediatric Dental Journal · doi:10.1016/j.pdj.2022.06.001 · Cited by 1
The regulatory role and environmental sensitivity of DNA methylation in neurodevelopment
Resendiz, M. (2017) · IUScholarWorks (Indiana University) · doi:10.7912/c2/2069
Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Brain Development in Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders
Treit, S. (2015) · ERA: Education and Research Archive (University of Alberta) · doi:10.7939/r3bk1716f
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: Diagnostic Considerations for Children with a History of Trauma
Shah, P., Shapiro, D. N., Milgrom, T., & Hoyme, H. E. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-00503-0_6
Tiago, A. V., Cuchi, G., de Pedri, E. C. M., Rossi, F. S., Finotti, R. D. F. C., & Rossi, A. A. B. (2021) · Amplla Editora eBooks · doi:10.51859/amplla.tam719.1121-20
CONSEQUÊNCIAS DO USO PROLONGADO DE INIBIDORES DA BOMBA DE PRÓTONS
Sales, L. C. V., Assunção, K. D. S., de Oliveira, R. G., SANTOS, D. L., Cardoso, A. N., & Bachur, T. P. R. (2021) · Amplla Editora eBooks · doi:10.51859/amplla.tam719.1121-8
Bigio, M. R. D. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-20792-1_26
Mendes, P. F. S., Rodrigues, J. K. M., Barros, P. A. C., Melo, W. W. P., Torrres-Magno, T. P., Lima, R. R., & Fernandes, L. M. P. (2025) · Naunyn-Schmiedeberg s Archives of Pharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00210-025-04860-y
Shah, P. E., Chang, R. J., & Hoyme, H. E. (2026) · Current problems in pediatric and adolescent health care · doi:10.1016/j.cppeds.2025.101912
Lee, M. A., Ramos, R. R., Taha, B. M., Gallardo, J. L., Mancero-Montalvo, R., & Valenzuela, C. F. (2026) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2026.111633
Smimih, K., Azzouhri, C., El‐Mansoury, B., Draoui, A., Lahouaoui, H., Bitar, A., Merzouki, M., & Hiba, O. E. (2026) · Neurology International · doi:10.3390/neurolint18070123
Neurocognitive Performance in Youth with Prenatal Alcohol Exposure
Jones, L. A. (2013) · Digital Commons - George Fox University (George Fox University)
Metadata
- Authors
- Lebel, C., Mattson, S. N., Riley, E. P., Jones, K. L., Adnams, C. M., May, P. A., Bookheimer, S. Y., O'Connor, M. J., Narr, K. L., Kan, E., Abaryan, Z., & Sowell, E. R.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- San Diego State University (US)
- University of California San Diego (US)
- University of Cape Town (ZA)
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- University of Southern California (US)
- ORCID
- Venue
- The Journal of Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Society for Neuroscience
- Published
- 2012-10-31
- Volume
- 32
- Issue
- 44
- Pages
- 15243-15251
- ISSN
- 0270-6474 (ISSN-L)
- 1529-2401
- PMC
- PMC3515671
- OpenAlex
- W2076069481
- Cited by
- 164
- References
- 42
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 17 · 2013: 13
- FWCI
- 14.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- Carolina Digital Repository (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) (submittedVersion)
- UNC Libraries
- Funders
- March of Dimes Foundation (6-FY2008-50)
- Canadian Institutes of Health Research
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (U01-AA11685, R01 AA15134, AA014834, U01AA017122, R01AA015134, AA15134, U01AA011685, U24AA014811, U01AA014834)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01DA017830, R01 DA 017831)
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD053893)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health › Prenatal Substance Exposure Effects
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health › Fetal and Pediatric Neurological Disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health › Birth, Development, and Health
- Keywords
- prenatal alcohol exposure, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, brain maturation, cortical plasticity, parietal cortex, facial dysmorphism, intelligence, adolescent brain development, neurodevelopmental disorders
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Aging, Alcohol Drinking, Brain, Cerebral Cortex, Child, Child Behavior, Child, Preschool, Cognition, Ethnicity, Facial Asymmetry, Female, Humans, Image Processing, Computer-Assisted, Intelligence Tests, Longitudinal Studies, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Neuropsychological Tests, Pregnancy, Pregnancy Trimesters, Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects, Sex Characteristics, Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
