Cited by 224Traumatic Brain Injury ResearchTraumatic Brain Injury and Neurovascular DisturbancesTrauma and Emergency Care Studies

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Predictors of Cognitive Function and Recovery 10 Years After Traumatic Brain Injury in Young Children

Anderson, Vicki, Godfrey, Celia, Rosenfeld, Jeffrey V., Catroppa, Cathy·2012·PEDIATRICS

DOI 10.1542/peds.2011-0311

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Abstract

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Childhood traumatic brain injury (TBI) has implications for functional outcomes, but few studies have documented long-term outcomes. The purpose of this study was to plot recovery of cognitive and functional skills after early childhood TBI to 10 years postinjury and to identify the contribution of injury, environment, preinjury characteristics, and acute functional recovery. METHODS: Subjects were recruited consecutively to this prospective, longitudinal study, which used a between-factor design, with injury severity as the independent variable. Forty children with TBI aged 2 and 7 years were recruited on admission to a tertiary pediatric hospital, divided according to injury severity, and compared with 16 healthy controls acutely and 12 and 30 months and 10 years postinjury. Cognition, adaptive ability, executive function, and social/behavioral skills were examined. RESULTS: Children with severe TBI had poorest outcomes, with deficits greatest for cognition. Recovery trajectories were similar across severity groups but with significant gains in verbal skills from 12 and 30 months to 12 months and 10 years. Predictors of outcome included preinjury ability (for adaptive function) and family function (social/behavioral skills). CONCLUSIONS: Results confirm a high risk of persisting deficits after severe TBI in early childhood. Children with less severe TBI appear to recover to function normally. Contrary to speculation about "growing into deficits," after protracted recovery to 30 months, young children make age-appropriate progress at least to 10 years postinsult. Environmental factors were found to contribute to adaptive and social/behavioral recovery.

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Descripción de la evolución funcional del traumatismo craneoencefálico en una población pediátrica tras un programa de rehabilitación integral
Laxe, S., León, D., Salgado, D., & Zabaleta, M. (2014) · Neurocirugía · doi:10.1016/j.neucir.2014.09.008 · Cited by 3
Incidence and risk of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and learning disability by adulthood after traumatic brain injury in childhood: a population-based birth cohort study
Brown, A. W., Esterov, D., Zielinski, M. D., Weaver, A. L., Mara, K. C., Ferrara, M. J., Immermann, J. M., & Moir, C. R. (2022) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2022.2136645 · Cited by 3
“(1998), has been reported to occur in children as early as 6 months and up to 10 years after TBI and has been linked to long-term cognitive impairment and poorer functional outcomes (Anderson et al., 2012; Babikian & Asarnow, 2009; Narad et al., 2018, 2020; Visser et al., 2014).”
Background
Conceptual framework of the recovery of self-awareness following a severe traumatic brain injury in childhood
Wales, L. (2022) · Brain Injury · doi:10.1080/02699052.2022.2158233 · Cited by 3
“domains and can have a long-lasting effect on children and their families (2,3).”
BackgroundInfluential
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“In another TBI study by Anderson et al (2012), only 42% of children were remained at the 10-year mark.”
Background
Biologie und Verhalten
Siegler, R. S., Eisenberg, N., DeLoache, J. S., & Saffran, J. R. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-47028-2_3 · Cited by 3
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“…et al., 2021; Potter et al., 2011; Raj et al., 2014; Schwartz et al., 2003; Wade et al., 2016; Woods et al., 2011; Yeates et al., 2010) and cognitive/intellectual (Anderson et al., 2012; Crowe et al., 2012; Crowe et al., 2021; Crowe et al., 2012; Taylor et al., 2008; Taylor et al., 2001) outcomes.”
Background
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Krabben, G., Mulder, H. D., Dijkstra, S. K., Burgerhof, J. G. M., & Kneyber, M. C. J. (2024) · Intensive Care Medicine – Paediatric and Neonatal · doi:10.1007/s44253-024-00033-6 · Cited by 2
“It is known that lifelong disability in physical, cognitive, behavioural and social function is common in patients with TBI [3, 34], although further neurological improvement from poor to favourable ≥ 6 months after PICU discharge may still occur [20].”
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Looi, D. S. H., Goh, M. S. L., Goh, S. S. M., Goh, J. L., Sultana, R., Lee, J. H., & Chong, S. (2020) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-035513 · Cited by 2
« Le syndrome du bébé secoué : les séquelles ? »
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Traumatic Brain Injury in Very Early Childhood
Crowe, L. M., Arana, C. C., & Catroppa, C. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-14895-9_3 · Cited by 2
Cognitive, social, and health functioning of children with TBI engaged in a formal support program
Ciccia, A., Nagele, D. A., Chen, Z., Albert, J. M., Eagan‐Johnson, B., Vaccaro, M. J., Dart, L., Riccardi, J. S., & Lundine, J. P. (2023) · Neurorehabilitation · doi:10.3233/nre-220208 · Cited by 2
“…ﬁndings have not always been consistent, the most robust predictors of later outcomes following pediatric TBI continue to be injury severity, time since injury, and age at injury (e.g., Anderson et al., 2000; 2010; 2012; Ewing-Cobbs et al., 2004; Treble-Barna et al., 2017; Yeates et al., 2005).”
Should Early Health Investments Work? Evidence from an RCT of a Home Visiting ProgrammePreprint
Coy, D., & Doyle, O. (2020) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 2
Evaluating cognitive performance using the National Institutes of Health Toolbox Cognitive Battery in children with traumatic brain injury
Petersen, B., Vo, N.-T. N., Anton, N., Yeates, K. O., & Treble-Barna, A. (2025) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s135561772510146x · Cited by 1
“The low-average mean performance on Fluid Cognition in the sTBI group is typical of previous findings reporting neuropsychological outcomes in pediatric TBI (Anderson et al., 2012; Beauchamp et al., 2011; Catroppa & Anderson, 2003; Treble-Barna et al., 2017b).”
A 12-Year Audit of Neurological Outcomes Associated with Core Body Temperature >37.5°C in Children with Severe Traumatic Brain Injury
Cavazzoni, E., & Boakye, T. (2022) · Therapeutic Hypothermia and Temperature Management · doi:10.1089/ther.2022.0026 · Cited by 1
“However, the argument that neuroplasticity protects a child’s brain from severe TBI is disputed by Anderson et al (2012) and Crowe et al (2012), who reported that children demonstrate lower cognitive function 3 years after severe TBI.”
Italian Coma Recovery Scale for Pediatrics (CRS-P): Preliminary Validation in a Sample of Young Children with Typical Development
Colombo, K., Corti, C., Porro, C., Fedeli, C., Beschi, M., Reverberi, C., & Strazzer, S. (2025) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci15020118 · Cited by 1
“In addition, the relation between outcome and age at injury and the difficulty in disentangling the evolution of the conscious state from the physiological grow curve make the behavioral assessment of children harder than in adults [15–19].”
Important Outcomes for Children and Adolescents With Cognitive-Communication Disorders After Traumatic Brain Injury: An International Multiperspective Consensus Study
Crumlish, L., Angwin, A. J., Burton, B., & Wallace, S. J. (2025) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2025_ajslp-24-00516 · Cited by 1
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Pediatrics 2: Trauma, Abuse, Drowning, Burns
Fontane, E., Hincapie, M., & Chiriboga, N. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-28794-8_33 · Cited by 1
More to the story than executive function: Effortful control soon after injury predicts long-term functional and social outcomes following pediatric traumatic brain injury in young children
Smith-Paine, J., Moscato, E. L., Narad, M. E., Sensenbaugh, J. D., Ling, B., Taylor, H. G., Stancin, T., Yeates, K. O., & Wade, S. L. (2022) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617722000315 · Cited by 1
“Executive functioning (EF) skills seem to be particularly sensitive to disruption following early TBI (Anderson et al., 2012; Beauchamp et al., 2011).”
Background
The Australian and New Zealand brain injury lifespan cohort protocol: Leveraging common data elements to characterise longitudinal outcome and recovery
Catroppa, C., Sood, N. T., Morrison, E., Kenardy, J. A., Lah, S. S., McKinlay, A., Ryan, N. P., Crowe, L. M., Soo, C. A., Godfrey, C., et al. (2023) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2022-067712 · Cited by 1
Self-citation
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Background

Authors: Anderson, V., Godfrey, C., Rosenfeld, J. V., & Catroppa, C.
Affiliations: Royal Children's Hospital (AU)
Murdoch Children's Research Institute (AU)
The Alfred Hospital (AU)
ORCID: Anderson, Vicki
Rosenfeld, Jeffrey V.
Catroppa, Cathy
Venue: PEDIATRICS
Publisher: American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP)
Published: 2012-02-01
Volume: 129
Issue: 2
Pages: e254-e261
ISSN: 0031-4005 (ISSN-L)
1098-4275
DOI: 10.1542/peds.2011-0311
OpenAlex: W2162200017
Cited by: 224
References: 35
Citations by year: 2026: 7 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 24 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 22 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 14 · 2012: 11
FWCI: 14.08
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: PEDIATRICS (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Clinical Neurology › Traumatic Brain Injury Research
Health Sciences › Medicine › Clinical Neurology › Traumatic Brain Injury and Neurovascular Disturbances
Health Sciences › Medicine › Emergency Medicine › Trauma and Emergency Care Studies
Keywords: traumatic brain injury, pediatric brain injury, long-term outcomes, cognitive recovery, injury severity, adaptive function, executive function, family functions, verbal ability, recovery trajectories
MeSH terms: Adaptation, Psychological, Child, Child Behavior Disorders, Child, Preschool, Cognition Disorders, Disability Evaluation, Family Relations, Female, Humans, Infant, Infant, Newborn, Intelligence, Language Development Disorders, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Prognosis, Prospective Studies, Social Environment, Glasgow Coma Scale, Parenting, Brain Injury, Chronic, Family Conflict, Executive Function

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Predictors of Cognitive Function and Recovery 10 Years After Traumatic Brain Injury in Young Children

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