HERO WITH ZEROES?: Tensions of Using an Anti-Discrimination Framework and an Impact Case Approach for Disability Rights Advocacy in China
Open accessAbstract
In 2014, a blind massage therapist named Li Jinsheng took the National College Entrance Examination (NCEE) in Braille, the first to do so in China. To everyone's surprise, he turned in blank answer sheets for two of the four subjects, which generated strong criticisms from the general public and blind communities. This article examines the conditions, process, and aftermaths of this event to consider what it means to use an anti-discrimination framework and an impact case approach for disability rights advocacy. Data comes from observation of media representations and discussions, interviews with key actors and stakeholders, and a focus group with blind college students.Our analysis of Li's case shows that in China, anti-discrimination actions often take the form of using individual cases to attack single, identifiable policy barriers, and they are typically carried out by people who are not directly impacted by the state's paternalistic biobureaucracy or the vulnerabilities it generates. As such, these cases might not sufficiently represent the desires and struggles of most people with disabilities, and the individualistic approach might further alienate the disabled communities. While effective in dismantling the particular policy barrier, such anti-discrimination actions may fall short of addressing more systemic, structural issues. This article ends with reflections on the tensions in using anti-discrimination impact cases in China and beyond, and on how to work on deeper struggles and build broader alliances in disability rights advocacy.
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Most blind and low-vision students who need accommodations still choose the specialized exams and admissions because the quality of K-12 education in the special schools they attend is much lower than mainstream schools.
“Most BLV students who need accommodations still choose to take the latter because the quality of K-12 education in the special schools they attend is much lower than mainstream schools [39, 53].”
From Access in the Shadow of Ableism: An Autoethnography of a Blind Student's Higher Education Experience in China (2026) · cites this paper as [53]
The Introduction says that few blind students risk the mainstream entrance exam because they lack confidence in their education and ability to compete, and it describes low academic preparation in special schools. It does not establish that most blind and low-vision students needing accommodations choose the specialized exams specifically because special-school K–12 education is much lower in quality than mainstream education; it also describes other reasons for choosing that path. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredLike most blind students in China, Zhang attended special schools for his K-12 education, as this is the major model in China providing accommodations to disabled students.
“Like most blind students in the country, he attended special schools for his K-12 education as this is the major model in China providing accommodations to disabled students [53, 72].”
From Access in the Shadow of Ableism: An Autoethnography of a Blind Student's Higher Education Experience in China (2026) · cites this paper as [53]
The Introduction describes special primary and secondary schools as a separate education pathway for students with visual disabilities, and says they typically teach in Braille. It does not establish that most blind students attend them; instead, it says special schools serve only a small proportion of children with visual disabilities. The paper also does not identify Zhang's K–12 schooling. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredBlind and low-vision students' choice of majors in China is highly restricted, typically to fields such as acupuncture, remedial massage, and music.
“Their choice of majors is also highly restricted, typically to fields such as acupuncture, remedial massage, and music [53].”
From Access in the Shadow of Ableism: An Autoethnography of a Blind Student's Higher Education Experience in China (2026) · cites this paper as [53]
The Introduction says special colleges offer designated majors, including massage therapy and music, and describes barriers that limit blind students’ options. It does not identify acupuncture as a typical major; a search for acupuncture found no supporting passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredDisabled students or their families often face trade-offs across different systems, and may find it hard to determine what is 'better' in the lack of adequate support and under pressure to conform to mainstream norms.
“Disabled students or their families often face trade-offs across different systems, who may find it hard to determine what is 'better' in the lack of adequate support and under pressure to conform to mainstream norms [21, 53].”
From Access in the Shadow of Ableism: An Autoethnography of a Blind Student's Higher Education Experience in China (2026) · cites this paper as [53]
The Introduction (page unavailable) describes students with visual disabilities and their families navigating difficult choices between mainstream and special education amid inadequate accommodations, limited information, and discouragement. It does not establish pressure to conform to mainstream norms as a reason for those choices, and its findings concern students with visual disabilities rather than disabled students generally. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredYears of navigating imperfect accessibility systems can lower disabled individuals' expectations for accessibility services or compel them to adapt in order to survive within existing structures.
“Moreover, years of navigating imperfect accessibility systems can lower disabled individuals' expectations for accessibility services [20, 87] or compel them to adapt in order to survive within existing structures [53, 95].”
From Access in the Shadow of Ableism: An Autoethnography of a Blind Student's Higher Education Experience in China (2026) · cites this paper as [53]
The Introduction (page unavailable) says that students with visual disabilities adjusted their education and career expectations and took a special path because mainstream schools and workplaces were inaccessible. This supports the adaptation clause, to which this citation appears attached, but the sentence generalizes from those students in China to disabled individuals more broadly. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Research suggests that in China, many blind students, their parents, and high school teachers are ignorant of disabled students' rights in gaokao, or may discourage them from taking the test due to perceptions of lower-quality special education.
“Research suggests that in China, many blind students, their parents, and high school teachers are ignorant of disabled students' rights in gaokao , or may discourage them from taking the test due to perceptions of lower-quality special education [53].”
From Access in the Shadow of Ableism: An Autoethnography of a Blind Student's Higher Education Experience in China (2026) · cites this paper as [53]
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAlthough the 'specialized exams and admissions' system limits students' choice of majors, it remains the primary pathway for blind students to access higher education in China.
“In contrast, although the 'specialized exams and admissions' system limits students' choice of majors, it remains the primary pathway for blind students to access higher education in China [53].”
From Access in the Shadow of Ableism: An Autoethnography of a Blind Student's Higher Education Experience in China (2026) · cites this paper as [53]
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- Ma, Z & Ni, Z. HERO WITH ZEROES?: Tensions of Using an Anti-Discrimination Framework and an Impact Case Approach for Disability Rights Advocacy in China. Disability Studies Quarterly. 2020 12; %}40(4) doi: 10.18061/dsq.v40i4.7039
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Tang, X., & Zhang, W. (2026) · Proceedings of the 2026 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3772318.3790464 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“In contrast, although the “specialized exams and admissions” system limits students’ choice of majors, it remains the primary pathway for blind students to access higher education in China [53].”
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- Authors
- Ma, Z., & Ni, Z.
- Affiliations
- University of Chicago (US)
- Venue
- Disability Studies Quarterly
- Publisher
- The Ohio State University Libraries
- Published
- 2020-12-07
- Volume
- 40
- Issue
- 4
- ISSN
- 1041-5718 (ISSN-L)
- 2159-8371
- OpenAlex
- W3111717759
- Cited by
- 7
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- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 2
- FWCI
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- en
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- doi.org
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- Disability Studies Quarterly (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Disability Rights and Representation
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Disability Education and Employment
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Inclusion and Disability in Education and Sport
- Keywords
- disability rights advocacy, anti-discrimination law, blind people, college entrance examination, Braille, paternalism, structural barriers, media representation, China
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