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MobileBERT: a Compact Task-Agnostic BERT for Resource-Limited Devices
Open accessAbstract
Natural Language Processing (NLP) has recently achieved great success by using huge pre-trained models with hundreds of millions of parameters.However, these models suffer from heavy model sizes and high latency such that they cannot be deployed to resourcelimited mobile devices.In this paper, we propose MobileBERT for compressing and accelerating the popular BERT model.Like the original BERT, MobileBERT is task-agnostic, that is, it can be generically applied to various downstream NLP tasks via simple fine-tuning.Basically, MobileBERT is a thin version of BERT LARGE , while equipped with bottleneck structures and a carefully designed balance between self-attentions and feed-forward networks.To train MobileBERT, we first train a specially designed teacher model, an invertedbottleneck incorporated BERT LARGE model.Then, we conduct knowledge transfer from this teacher to MobileBERT.Empirical studies show that MobileBERT is 4.3× smaller and 5.5× faster than BERT BASE while achieving competitive results on well-known benchmarks.On the natural language inference tasks of GLUE, MobileBERT achieves a GLUE score of 77.7 (0.6 lower than BERT BASE ), and 62 ms latency on a Pixel 4 phone.On the SQuAD v1.1/v2.0question answering task, MobileBERT achieves a dev F1 score of 90.0/79.2(1.5/2.1 higher than BERT BASE ).
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“To train MobileBERT, first the authors trained a specially designed teacher model, and then, they transferred the knowledge from the teacher to MobileBERT, which is 4.3× smaller and 5.5× faster than the general BERT model.”
From A Review on Deep-Learning-Based Cyberbullying Detection (2023) · cites this paper as [57]
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“The distilled MobileBERT model is 4.3 × smaller than the BERT-base network and 5.5 × faster on a Pixel 4 mobile phone.”
From A Survey of Techniques for Optimizing Transformer Inference (2023) · cites this paper as [67]
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“MobileBERT [67] is a compressed version of the BERT-base model, and it runs 5.5 ×”
From A Survey of Techniques for Optimizing Transformer Inference (2023) · cites this paper as [67]
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“Moreover, models such as MobileBERT and SqueezeBERT employ bottleneck layers and grouped convolutions, leading to a 3× to 4× reduction in latency while maintaining >90% of the original model’s accuracy.”
From Tiny Language Models for Automation and Control: Overview, Potential Applications, and Future Research Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [68]
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Hentschel, M., Nishikawa, Y., Komatsu, T., & Fujita, Y. (2024) · IEEE International Conference on Acoustics Speech and Signal Processing · doi:10.1109/icassp48485.2024.10447305 · Cited by 3
NOVA: NoC-based Vector Unit for Mapping Attention Layers on a CNN Accelerator
Upadhyay, M., Juneja, R., Wong, W., & Peh, L.-S. (2024) · Design, Automation, and Test in Europe · doi:10.23919/date58400.2024.10546727 · Cited by 4
Yu, D., & Qiu, L. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Emerging Topics in Computational Intelligence · doi:10.1109/tetci.2024.3418837 · Cited by 2
SecureReg: Combining NLP and MLP for Enhanced Detection of Malicious Domain Name Registrations
Çolhak, F., Ecevit, M. İ., Dağ, H., & Creutzburg, R. M. (2024) · International Conference on Electrical, Computer and Energy Technologies (ICECET) · doi:10.1109/icecet61485.2024.10698551 · Cited by 2
Yang, F., Cao, Y., Li, X., & Zhang, W. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Cognitive and Developmental Systems · doi:10.1109/tcds.2024.3496566 · Cited by 2
Model compression through distillation with cross-layer integrated guidance at word level
Li, G., Zheng, S., Zou, H., Yu, H., & Gao, S. (2024) · Neurocomputing · doi:10.1016/j.neucom.2024.129162 · Cited by 2
Self-citationMLBERT: Multi-Level Fully Binarized BERT
Mohammadi-nasab, M., Fakhire, M., Salehi, M. E., & Modarresi, M. (2024) · International Conference on Innovative Engineering Sciences and Technological Research (ICIESTR) · doi:10.1109/iciestr60916.2024.10798212 · Cited by 2
AToM: Adaptive Token Merging for Efficient Acceleration of Vision Transformer
Shin, J., Kang, M., Han, Y., Park, J., & Kim, L. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Computers · doi:10.1109/tc.2025.3540638 · Cited by 4
Embeddings hidden layers learning for neural network compression
Hu, J. C., Cavicchioli, R., & Capotondi, A. (2025) · Neural Networks · doi:10.1016/j.neunet.2025.107794 · Cited by 2
Efficient Keyset Design for Neural Networks Using Homomorphic Encryption
Joo, Y., Ha, S., Oh, H., & Paek, Y. (2025) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s25144320 · Cited by 3
Ember: Task Wakeup Sequence–Based Energy Optimization for Mobile Web Browsing
Park, S., Kim, J., Lee, J., & Cha, H. (2025) · ACM Transactions on Embedded Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3757918 · Cited by 2
Performance Analysis of Traditional VQA Models Under Limited Computational Resources
Gu, J. (2025) · IEEE International Conference on Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning (PRML) · doi:10.1109/prml66062.2025.11159683 · Cited by 2
Hussain, M., Chen, C., Anwar, M., Ghorashi, S. A., Ahmed, A., Malik, M. S. A., & Yamin, I. (2025) · PeerJ Computer Science · doi:10.7717/peerj-cs.3287 · Cited by 2
Towards Green Generative AI for Exploit Prediction in Resource-Limited Systems
Mirtaheri, S. L., Yousefikia, M., Majd, A., Shahbazian, R., Trubitsyna, I., & Pugliese, A. (2025) · IEEE Intl Conf on Dependable, Autonomic and Secure Computing, Intl Conf on Pervasive Intelligence and Computing, Intl Conf on Cloud and Big Data Computing, Intl Conf on Cyber Science and Technology Congress (DASC/PiCom/CBDCom/CyberSciTech) · doi:10.1109/cyberscitech68397.2025.00031 · Cited by 2
Towards Non-task-specific Distillation of BERT via Sentence Representation Approximation
Wu, B., Zhang, H., Li, M., Wang, Z., Feng, Q., Huang, J., & Wang, B. (2020) · Conference of the Asia-Pacific Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (AACL-IJCNLP) · doi:10.18653/v1/2020.aacl-main.9 · Cited by 3
Sparse Distillation: Speeding Up Text Classification by Using Bigger Student Models
Ye, Q., Khabsa, M., Lewis, M., Wang, S., Ren, X., & Jaech, A. (2022) · Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies (NAACL-HLT) · doi:10.18653/v1/2022.naacl-main.169 · Cited by 2
MUX-PLMs: Pre-training Language Models with Data Multiplexing
Murahari, V., Deshpande, A., Jimenez, C., Izhak Shafran, J., Wang, M., Cao, Y., & Narasimhan, K. (2023) · Workshop on Representation Learning for NLP (RepL4NLP) · doi:10.18653/v1/2023.repl4nlp-1.17 · Cited by 2
SqueezeBioBERT: BioBERT Distillation for Healthcare Natural Language Processing
Du, H. G., & Hu, Y. (2020) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-66046-8_16 · Cited by 2
Woszczyk, D. C., Lee, A., & Demetriou, S. (2021) · doi:10.1145/3469261.3469405 · Cited by 2
Resource-Efficient Multi-Task Deep Learning Using a Multi-Path Network
Park, S., Lee, J., & Kim, E. (2022) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2022.3161622 · Cited by 2
Metadata
- Authors
- Sun, Z., Yu, H., Song, X., Liu, R., Yang, Y., & Zhou, D.
- Affiliations
- Carnegie Mellon University (US)
- Venue
- Proceedings of the 58th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics
- Published
- 2020
- Pages
- 2158-2170
- ISSN
- 0736-587X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3034457371
- Cited by
- 757
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 94 · 2025: 134 · 2024: 98 · 2023: 128 · 2022: 119 · 2021: 140 · 2020: 43
- FWCI
- 41.07
- Type
- conference paper
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Proceedings of the conference - Association for Computational Linguistics. Meeting (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Topic Modeling
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Advanced Neural Network Applications
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Domain Adaptation and Few-Shot Learning
- Keywords
- MobileBERT, BERT, model compression, knowledge distillation, teacher-student learning, self-attention, feedforward neural networks, mobile devices, resource-constrained deployment, natural language inference, question answering, adhesives, SQuAD
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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