Cancellation of Marriage Due to Apostasy in Islamic Law and Human Rights: A Comparative Analysis of Indonesia and Malaysia

May combine two claims.

The Lina Joy case exemplified jurisdictional tension: civil courts upheld that only Syariah courts could decide on apostasy, effectively restricting freedom of religion for Muslims in Malaysia.

“This jurisdictional tension was exemplified in the Lina Joy case, where the civil courts upheld that only Syariah courts could decide on apostasy, effectively restricting the freedom of religion for Muslims in Malaysia.21”

• cites [21]Not matched

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May combine two claims.

There are discrepancies in Indonesian court decisions regarding divorce due to a husband's apostasy: PA Malili ruled the marriage legally annulled through fasakh, while PA Wonosobo viewed the issue as marital conflict and granted talaq raj'i (revocable divorce).

“Therefore, PA Malili ruled that the marriage was legally annulled through fasakh, while PA Wonosobo viewed the issue primarily as a case of marital conflict and granted talaq raj'i (revocable divorce).”

• cites Kitab Fiqhus Sunnah Volume II, page 389Not matched

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• cites Article 75 KHINot matched

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• cites SEMA No. 2 of 2014Not matched

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May combine two claims.

Inconsistencies exist in rulings of Indonesian religious courts: sometimes judges decide marriage is automatically annulled when one spouse apostatises, while in other cases judges focus on marital disharmony caused by religious differences and issue a divorce ruling (talak).

“However, inconsistencies exist in the rulings of Indonesian religious courts.Sometimes, judges decide that marriage is automatically annulled when one spouse apostatises.However, in other cases, judges focus more on marital disharmony caused by religious differences and issue a divorce ruling (talak) instead.”

May combine two claims.

Not all judges apply the same jurisprudence, leading to differing decisions.

“Furthermore, not all judges apply the same jurisprudence, leading to differing decisions.”

May combine two claims.

Most courts still experience inconsistencies in the application of Islamic law and national law, resulting in differing rulings for similar cases.

“Most courts still experience inconsistencies in the application of Islamic law and national law, resulting in differing rulings for similar cases.”

The quote only partly states this claim.

In Malaysia, children remain Muslim after divorce due to apostasy unless ruled otherwise by the court.

“Children remain Muslim”

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

In Malaysia, a wife is entitled to mut'ah (divorce compensation) and to financial support during iddah.

“-Entitled to mut'ah”

May combine two claims.

In Indonesia, a wife divorced via talak is entitled to iddah financial support, while if the marriage is annulled via fasakh this depends on the judge's ruling.

“-Entitled to iddah financial”

May combine two claims.

In Indonesia, there is no clear standard for a child's status after divorce due to apostasy; typically children follow the mother's religion or a court decision.

“No clear standard; typically,”

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Court rulings on apostasy-related marriage annulment are inconsistent in Indonesia (some cases result in fasakh, others in talak) but consistently fasakh across all of Malaysia.

“Inconsistent (some cases result in”

The quote only partly states this claim.

The apostate spouse loses inheritance rights from the Muslim spouse.

“-The apostate spouse loses”

May combine two claims.

There are differing opinions among Islamic scholars regarding consequences of apostasy on marriage, though the majority opinion is that the marriage is automatically dissolved upon declaration of apostasy.

“There are differing opinions among Islamic scholars regarding the consequences of apostasy on marriage, though the majority opinion is that the marriage is automatically dissolved upon the declaration of apostasy.19”

• cites [19]Not matched

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May combine two claims.

While the Federal Constitution guarantees religious freedom under Article 11(1), this right is not absolute for Muslims, particularly in matters of apostasy.

“While the Federal Constitution enshrines the guarantee of religious freedom under Article 11 (1), this right is not absolute for Muslims, particularly in matters of apostasy.20”

• cites [20]Not matched

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

This view is based on the Quranic injunction that prohibits Muslim women from marrying non-Muslim men.

“This view is based on the Quranic injunction that prohibits Muslim women from marrying non-Muslim men.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Christian view on annulment considers it an invalid marriage due to the continued relationship or binding of one of the parties.

“In contrast, the Christian view on annulment considers it an invalid marriage due to the continued relationship or binding of one of the parties.6”

• cites [6]Not matched

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Islamic perspective on annulment of marriage typically views it as permissible when there is damage or defect in the marriage.

“The Islamic perspective on the annulment of marriage typically views it as a permissible action when there is damage or defect in the marriage.5”

• cites [5]Not matched

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May combine two claims.

International human rights law guarantees freedom of religion, but its implementation remains ambiguous, leading to protection gaps, particularly in asylum claims based on apostasy.

“International human rights law guarantees the freedom of religion, but its implementation remains ambiguous, leading to protection gaps, particularly in asylum claims based on apostasy.4”

• cites [4]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The rationale for automatic dissolution is that marriage is a legal contract whose validity requires both spouses to be Muslim; once a spouse apostatises, the marriage is null and void and marital obligations no longer bind the Muslim spouse.

“The underlying rationale is that marriage is considered a legal contract, and one of the conditions for its validity is that both spouses must be Muslim.Once a spouse becomes an apostate, the marriage is deemed null and void, and the marital obligations no longer bind the Muslim spouse.”

May combine two claims.

The legal framework regarding apostasy in Malaysia is complex, stemming from interplay between religious and constitutional law, and apostasy is not consistently addressed across the country because religious matters are under state authorities.

“The legal framework regarding apostasy in Malaysia is complex, stemming from the interplay between religious and constitutional law.Apostasy, which denotes the renunciation of Islam, is not consistently addressed across the country, as religious matters are under the purview of state authorities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The legal injunction to execute apostates during the Prophetic era was a way to discourage defection from Muslim military forces, and such rulings may not be applicable in a globalised world where an ideal Islamic polity is unlikely to exist.

“Scholars have argued that the legal injunction to execute apostates during the Prophetic era was a way to discourage defection from the Muslim military forces, and such rulings may not be applicable in a globalised world where an ideal Islamic polity is unlikely to exist.15”

• cites [15]Not matched

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May combine two claims.

In Indonesia, people often prefer to follow fiqh over codified regulations, showing tension between Islamic family law and national law.

“In Indonesia, the tension between Islamic family law and national law is evident, as people often prefer to follow the fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) over the codified regulations.13”

• cites [13]Not matched

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May combine two claims.

Islamic law considers apostasy (riddah) as grounds for annulment of marriage, but its application differs between Indonesia and Malaysia: Indonesian Religious Courts require evidence of marital disharmony resulting from apostasy, while Malaysian authorities' significant state intervention in determining faith raises concerns about legal pluralism and religious freedom.

“While Islamic law considers riddah as grounds for the annulment of marriage, its application differs in Indonesia, 1 where the Religious Court requires evidence of marital disharmony resulting from apostasy, 2 while in Malaysia, the significant state intervention by authorities who determine an individual's faith raises concerns about legal pluralism and religious freedom.3”

• cites [1]Not matched

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• cites [2]Not matched

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• cites [3]Not matched

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

In Malaysia, Shariah Courts have exclusive jurisdiction over matters related to apostasy, where apostates may face punishments such as fines, imprisonment, and whipping.

“In Malaysia, for instance, the Shariah Courts have exclusive jurisdiction over matters related to apostasy, where apostates may face punishments such as fines, imprisonment, and whipping.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Historically, the legal injunction to execute apostates during the Prophetic era was primarily a means to discourage defection from the Muslim military forces rather than a comprehensive theological or moral imperative.

“Historically, the legal injunction to execute apostates during the Prophetic era was primarily a means to discourage defection from the Muslim military forces rather than a comprehensive theological or moral imperative.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Human rights refer to the inherent natural rights that every person is entitled to from birth, in alignment with the human nature described in the Qur'an.

“Human rights refer to the inherent natural rights that every person is entitled to from birth, in 36 alignment with the human nature described in the Qur'an.39”

• cites [39]Not matched

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The tension between the classical Islamic legal doctrine of apostasy and international human rights law principles presents a significant challenge.

“The tension between the classical Islamic legal doctrine of apostasy and international human rights law principles presents a significant challenge.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Islamic jurisprudence has historically maintained a firm stance on the gravity of apostasy and its consequences, including the potential dissolution of marriage.

“On the one hand, Islamic jurisprudence has historically maintained a firm stance on the gravity of apostasy and its consequences, including the potential dissolution of marriage.”

May combine two claims.

The Compilation of Islamic Law states that a marriage can be annulled if one spouse apostatises, but it does not explicitly specify whether the divorce should take the form of fasakh (annulment) or talak (divorce).

“The Compilation of Islamic Law (KHI) does state that a marriage can be annulled if one spouse apostatises, but it does not explicitly specify whether the divorce should take the form of fasakh (annulment) or talak (divorce).”

• cites KHINot matched

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

In the context of apostasy, Islamic law considers that if one spouse changes religion, it can serve as grounds for fasakh.

“In the context of apostasy, Islamic law considers that if one spouse changes religion, it can serve as grounds for fasakh.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Malaysia has a more structured and standardised legal system, ensuring uniformity in court rulings on apostasy cases.

“Malaysia also has a more structured and standardised legal system, ensuring uniformity in court rulings on apostasy cases.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This traditional view is based on interpretation of certain Quranic verses and hadith that seem to condemn apostasy and prescribe temporal punishment.

“This perspective is based on the interpretation of certain Quranic verses and hadith (sayings of the Prophet Muhammad) that seem to condemn apostasy and prescribe temporal punishment.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The current ambiguity in Indonesian law may lead to inconsistent outcomes, indicating a need for clearer legal standards and guidelines regarding marriage annulment due to apostasy.

“This judicial approach indicates a need for clearer legal standards and guidelines regarding marriage annulment due to apostasy, as the current ambiguity in the law may lead to inconsistent outcomes.”

May combine two claims.

Indonesian law does not provide specific guidelines regarding the rights of spouses who divorce due to apostasy, such as inheritance rights, child custody, and financial support; as a result, court decisions vary depending on the judge handling the case.

“Furthermore, Indonesian law does not provide specific guidelines regarding the rights of spouses who divorce due to apostasy, such as inheritance rights, child custody, and financial support.As a result, court decisions vary depending on the judge handling the case.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The right to freedom of religion and belief, as enshrined in various human rights instruments such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, affirms the individual's right to change or renounce their faith without coercion or discrimination.

“On the other hand, the right to freedom of religion and belief, as enshrined in various human rights instruments, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, affirms the individual's right to change or renounce their faith without coercion or discrimination.”

• cites Universal Declaration of Human RightsNot matched

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• cites International Covenant on Civil and Political RightsNot matched

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

This doctrinal stance is based on the premise that the marriage contract is inherently tied to the shared faith of the spouses, and the breach of this fundamental condition renders the marriage void.

“This doctrinal stance is based on the premise that the marriage contract is inherently tied to the shared faith of the spouses, and the breach of this fundamental condition renders the marriage void.37”

• cites [37]Not matched

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In a modern, globalised context, the rationale for severe punishments for apostasy as envisioned in classical Islamic jurisprudence may no longer be applicable, because the early Islamic period's idealised polity is unlikely to exist.

“In a modern, globalised context, the rationale for severe punishments for apostasy, as envisioned in classical Islamic jurisprudence, may no longer be applicable.The early Islamic period's idealised polity is unlikely to exist, necessitating a re-evaluation of such harsh measures against those who renounce their faith.34”

• cites [34]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The classical legal doctrine of apostasy in Islam encompasses the explicit renunciation of the faith and any deed or utterance that may imply unbelief, such as denying a fundamental tenet or creed of Islam.

“However, the classical legal doctrine of apostasy in Islam encompasses the explicit renunciation of the faith and any deed or utterance that may imply unbelief, such as denying a fundamental tenet or creed of Islam.30”

• cites [30]Not matched

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The right to change one's religion or belief, or to hold no religion at all, is a core principle of human rights law, and any state-sanctioned measures that seek to coerce individuals into maintaining a particular religious affiliation or disrupt their marital relationships based on apostasy may be deemed a violation of these rights.

“The right to change one's religion or belief, or to hold no religion at all, is a core principle of human rights law, and any state-sanctioned measures that seek to coerce individuals into maintaining a particular religious affiliation or disrupt their marital relationships based on apostasy may be deemed a violation of these rights.38”

• cites [38]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Malaysia does not provide an option for divorce by talaq in apostasy cases, as marriage between a Muslim and a non-Muslim is not legally valid under Malaysian Islamic law.

“Malaysia does not provide an option for divorce by talaq in such cases, as marriage between a Muslim and a non-Muslim is not legally valid under Malaysian Islamic law.”

May combine two claims.

This results in different legal interpretations, where some judges refer to Shafi'i schools of thought, while others align with Indonesia's positive law.

“This results in different legal interpretations, where some judges refer to Shafi'i schools of thought, while others align with Indonesia's positive law.”

May combine two claims.

In Malaysia, Islamic law plays a stronger role in the marriage and divorce system; Muslim marriages are governed by the Islamic Family Law Act and the State Administration of Islamic Law Enactment, which take a more rigid approach to apostasy cases.

“In Malaysia, Islamic law plays a stronger role in the marriage and divorce system.Muslim marriages in Malaysia are governed by the Islamic Family Law Act and the State Administration of Islamic Law Enactment, which take a more rigid approach to apostasy cases.”

• cites Islamic Family Law ActNot matched

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• cites State Administration of Islamic Law EnactmentNot matched

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Apostasy (riddah) is generally regarded in Islamic jurisprudence as a grave offence against the faith.

“Apostasy, or riddah, occupies a prominent position in Islamic jurisprudence, where it is generally regarded as a grave offence against the faith.”

May combine two claims.

Religious conversion by one spouse is often used as grounds for divorce, as differences in belief can lead to disharmony within the household.

“Religious conversion by one spouse is often used as grounds for divorce, as differences in belief can lead to disharmony within the household.”

May combine two claims.

The issue of apostasy in Indonesia is complicated by the blasphemy law, which penalises religious offences; accusations of blasphemy against apostates can lead to social ostracism and legal repercussions, indirectly influencing outcomes of apostasy-related divorce cases.

“The issue of apostasy in Indonesia is further complicated by the country's blasphemy law, which penalises religious offences.Accusations of blasphemy against apostates can lead to social ostracism and legal repercussions, indirectly influencing the outcomes of apostasy-related divorce cases.29”

• cites [29]Not matched

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

According to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, these rights are inherent to all individuals and include the right to life, personal freedom and security, legal recognition, equality before the law, freedom of thought and expression, freedom of religion, access to social security, education, and more.

“According to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, these rights are inherent to all individuals and include the right to life, personal freedom and security, legal recognition, equality before the law, freedom of thought and expression, freedom of religion, access to social security, education, and more.”

• cites Universal Declaration of Human RightsNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Within the maqasid al-shariah framework, the traditional jurisprudential rulings on marriage annulment due to apostasy should be given priority over preserving the marital relationship and the well-being of the individuals concerned.

“Within the maqasid al-shariah framework, the traditional jurisprudential rulings on marriage annulment due to apostasy should be given priority over preserving the marital relationship and the well-being of the individuals concerned.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Human rights and religious teachings can be harmonized and complement each other if they are implemented in a balanced manner.

“Human rights and religious teachings can be harmonized and complement each other if they are implemented in a balanced manner.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

In Malaysia, the tension between Syariah and constitutional courts underscores the challenges of balancing religious laws with constitutional rights.

“In Malaysia, the tension between Syariah and constitutional courts underscores the challenges of balancing religious laws with constitutional rights.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Rofiq's study highlights the importance of considering the conditions and circumstances of the individuals involved in determining the custody of children in cases of divorce due to apostasy.

“Rofiq's study highlights the importance of considering the conditions and circumstances of the individuals involved in determining the custody of children in cases of divorce due to apostasy.44”

• cites [44]Not matched

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Preserving the child's religious identity is a vital component of conventional custody regulations.

“Preserving the child's religious identity is a vital component of conventional custody regulations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

A balanced legal framework is needed to harmonise Islamic principles with modern human rights standards, ensuring fairness and dignity for all.

“A balanced legal framework is needed to harmonise Islamic principles with modern human rights standards, ensuring fairness and dignity for all.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

When a marriage ends because of apostasy, according to maqasid al-shariah, keeping the marriage together and ensuring everyone's well-being is paramount, not strictly following traditional legal rulings.

“When a marriage ends because of apostasy, according to maqasid al-shariah, keeping the marriage together and making sure everyone is healthy is paramount, not strictly following traditional legal rulings.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

A comprehensive and contextual interpretation of Maqasid al-Shariah can provide a framework for addressing apostasy-related marriage and custody issues, promoting fairness and inclusivity while upholding the dignity of all individuals involved.

“A comprehensive and contextual interpretation of Maqasid al-Shariah can provide a framework for addressing these issues, promoting fairness and inclusivity while upholding the dignity of all individuals involved.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

When a marriage is terminated due to apostasy, the primary emphasis should be on preserving the marriage and safeguarding the well-being of all parties involved rather than rigidly following conventional legal judgments.

“When a marriage is terminated due to apostasy, the primary emphasis should be on preserving the marriage and safeguarding the well-being of all parties involved rather than rigidly”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

In Indonesia, inconsistent court rulings on apostasy-related divorces point to the need for clearer guidelines, particularly in cases involving child custody.

“In Indonesia, inconsistent court rulings on apostasy-related divorces point to the need for clearer guidelines, particularly in cases involving child custody.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Prioritising the possession of children in situations of divorce resulting from apostasy should be based on the circumstances of the parties involved.

“Prioritising the possession of children in situations of divorce resulting from apostasy should be based on the circumstances of the parties involved.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The analysis of marriage annulment due to apostasy from the perspective of maqasid al-shariah suggests a more nuanced and contextual approach that prioritises the preservation of the marital bond, the welfare of the individuals involved, and the best interests of the child.

“the analysis of marriage annulment due to apostasy from the perspective of maqasid al-shariah suggests a more nuanced and contextual approach that prioritises the preservation of the marital bond, the welfare of the individuals involved, and the best interests of the child.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Human rights advocates oppose the automatic annulment of marriage due to apostasy, arguing that it restricts an individual's right to choose and practice their faith freely.

“Human rights advocates oppose the automatic annulment of marriage due to apostasy, arguing that it restricts an individual's right to choose and practice their faith freely.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The concept of maqasid offers a more adaptable approach to Islamic family law, particularly pertinent in contemporary culture.

“The concept of maqasid offers a more adaptable approach to Islamic family law, particularly pertinent in contemporary culture.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Classical rulings, such as the automatic dissolution of marriage or punitive measures against apostates, must be reevaluated to align with modern human rights principles, including the right to freedom of religion.

“Classical rulings, such as the automatic dissolution of marriage or punitive measures against apostates, must be reevaluated to align with modern human rights principles, including the right to freedom of religion.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: International human rights standards, particularly freedom of religion, are a valid benchmark for evaluating Islamic legal rulings on apostasy.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The doctrine of maqasid al-shariah, as described by Asy-Syatibi, emphasises the centrality of maslahah (public interest) in applying Islamic law.

“The doctrine of maqasid al-shariah, as described by Asy-Syatibi, emphasises the centrality of maslahah (public interest) in applying Islamic law.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

When addressing apostasy within Islam, the difficulties convert Muslims (mualaf) face in adjusting to their new religious identity should be taken into account.

“when addressing the issue of apostasy within Islam, it is important to take into account the difficulties convert Muslims (mualaf) face in adjusting to their new religious identity.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The preservation of religion (hifz al-din) is one of the fundamental goals of Islamic law.

“the preservation of religion (hifz al-din) is one of the fundamental goals of Islamic law.42”

• cites [42]Not matched

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Custody decisions in apostasy-related divorce cases must prioritise the welfare of the child, considering their overall well-being alongside the preservation of their religious identity.

“Custody decisions in these cases must prioritise the welfare of the child, considering their overall well-being alongside the preservation of their religious identity.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The judge's decision in custody cases arising from apostasy-related divorce should prioritise the child's best interests, which may supersede the strict application of traditional custody rules.

“The child's best interests should be the judge's guiding principle, even though this may not always coincide with a strict application of the traditional custody rules.”

• Also stated in: § The Marriage Annulment Due to Apostasy based on Maqasid al-Shariah Approach · hedged

  “The judge's decision should prioritise the child's best interests, which may supersede the strict application of traditional custody rules.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: A judge can determine the child's best interests on a case-by-case basis in custody disputes arising from apostasy-related divorce.

May combine two claims.

Indonesia's regulations on enforcing legal justice to uphold human rights remain broad in scope and fail to fully address evolving human rights issues.

“the regulations regarding this matter remain broad in scope, failing to fully address the evolving human rights issues.41”

• cites [41]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

While the preservation of the child's religious identity is important, the paramount consideration in custody decisions should be ensuring the overall well-being and welfare of the child.

“While the preservation of the child's religious identity is important, the paramount consideration should be ensuring the overall well-being and welfare of the child.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The preservation of the religious identity of the child is a fundamental aspect of the traditional rules of custody, and deviating from these established principles could undermine the child's spiritual upbringing and the integrity of the Islamic legal system.

“The preservation of the religious identity of the child is a fundamental aspect of the traditional rules of custody, and deviating from these established principles could undermine the child's spiritual upbringing and the integrity of the Islamic legal system.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights enumerates various human rights, such as the right to life, liberty, and security; the right to be recognised as a person before the law; the right to freedom of thought, expression, and religion; the right to social security; and the right to education.

“The Universal Declaration of Human Rights enumerates various human rights, such as the right to life, liberty, and security; the right to be recognised as a person before the law; the right to freedom of thought, expression, and religion; the right to social security; and the right to education.”

• cites Universal Declaration of Human RightsNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.