Songbird response to increased willow (Salix spp.) growth in Yellowstone's northern range
Abstract
After nearly a century of height suppression, willows (Salix spp.) in the northern range of Yellowstone National Park, U.S.A., are increasing in height growth as a possible consequence of wolf (Canis lupus) restoration, climate change, or other factors. Regardless of the drivers, the recent release of this rare but important habitat type could have significant implications for associated songbirds that are exhibiting declines in the region. Our objective was to evaluate bird response to releasing willows by comparing willow structure and bird community composition across three willow growth conditions: height suppressed, recently released, and previously tall (i.e., tall prior to the height increase of released willows). Released and previously tall willows exhibited high and similar vertical structure, but released willows were significantly lower in horizontal structure. Suppressed willows were significantly shorter and lower in horizontal cover than released or previously tall willows. Bird richness increased along a gradient from lowest in suppressed to highest in previously tall willows, but abundance and diversity were similar between released and previously tall willows, despite lower horizontal cover in the released condition. Common Yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas) and Lincoln's Sparrow (Melospiza lincolnii) were found in all three growth conditions; however, Yellow Warbler (Dendroica petechia), Warbling Vireo (Vireo gilvus), Willow Flycatcher (Empidonax traillii), and Song Sparrow (Melospiza melodii) were present in released and previously tall willows only. Wilson's Warbler (Wilsonia pusilla) was found in previously tall willows only, appearing to specialize on tall, dense willows. The results of our a priori habitat models indicated that foliage height diversity was the primary driver of bird richness, abundance, and diversity. These results indicate that vertical structure was a more important driver of bird community variables than horizontal structure and that riparian and willow-dependent bird species have responded positively to increased willow growth in the region.
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As elk densities declined further, willows grew taller in some locations, exceeding an average height of 200 cm by 2010 in some study sites.
“As elk densities declined further (Painter et al. 2015), willows grew taller in some locations (Tercek et al. 2010a, Baril et al. 2011, Painter and Ripple 2012, Beschta and Ripple 2016), exceeding an average height of 200 cm by 2010 in some study sites (Marshall et al. 2013), a threshold indicative of tall willow recovery (Dobkin et al. 2002, Singer andZeigenfuss 2003).”
From Tall willow thickets return to northern Yellowstone (2020) · cites this paper as Baril et al. 2011
The recent shift from herbivory as the primary factor limiting willow height and canopy cover, to greater importance of bottom-up factors, is evidence of a major ecological change in northern Yellowstone.
“The recent shift from herbivory as the primary factor limiting willow height and canopy cover, to greater importance of bottom-up factors, is evidence of a major ecological change in northern Yellowstone (Singer et al. 2003, Tercek et al. 2010a, Baril et al. 2011).”
From Tall willow thickets return to northern Yellowstone (2020) · cites this paper as Baril et al. 2011
As much as 53% of wildlife species, including up to 80% of the local avifauna, breed in riparian habitats.
“For example, as much as 53% of wildlife species, including up to 80% of the local avifauna, breed in riparian habitats (Baril et al. 2011; Walker et al. 2023; Kauffman et al. 2001).”
From A Century of Overabundant Ungulates in Yellowstone’s Lamar Valley: First Elk and Now Bison (2026) · cites this paper as Baril et al. 2011
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References 57 · Cited by 40
- Authors
- Baril, L. M., Hansen, A. J., Renkin, R., & Lawrence, R.
- Affiliations
- Montana State University (US)
- Yellowstone National Park (US)
- Corresponding author
- Baril, Lisa M.
- Venue
- Ecological Applications
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2011-09
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 2283-2296
- ISSN
- 1051-0761 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2170057960
- Cited by
- 40
- References
- 57
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 2
- FWCI
- 2.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Ecological Applications (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Montana State University
- National Park Service
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Avian ecology and behavior
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Nature and Landscape Conservation › Ecology and Vegetation Dynamics Studies
- Keywords
- willow, songbirds, riparian zones, habitat restoration, wolf reintroduction, bird community composition, habitat structure, foliage height diversity, bird species richness, Willow Flycatcher, Wilson's Warbler, common yellowthroat, Lincoln's sparrow, song sparrow, yellow warbler, Warbling Vireo, Yellowstone National Park, Northern Range, climate change
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Models, Biological, Montana, Population Dynamics, Time, Wyoming, Ecosystem, Songbirds, Salix
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