Emotional Abuse in Intimate Relationships: The Role of Gender and Age
Open accessAbstract
This study aimed to investigate the moderating roles of gender and age on emotional abuse within intimate relationships. This study included 250 participants with an average age of 27 years. Participants completed the Emotional Abuse Questionnaire (EAQ; Jacobson & Gottman, 1998), which 4 subscales are isolation, degradation, sexual abuse, and property damage. Multigroup analysis with 2 groups, female (n= 141) and male (n= 109), was used to test the moderation effect. Younger men reported experiencing higher levels of emotional abuse, which declined with age. Older females reported experiencing less emotional abuse than older males. Overall, emotional abuse was more common in younger participants. Younger women experienced higher rates of isolation, and women’s overall experience of property damage was higher than that of men and increased with age. Results are interpreted through the social exchange and conflict frameworks.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Men also experience emotional abuse at comparable rates, particularly in forms involving verbal aggression, control, and psychological manipulation, although underreporting remains a significant concern due to stigma and gender norms.
“Emerging evidence suggests that men also experience emotional abuse at comparable rates, particularly in forms involving verbal aggression, control, and psychological manipulation, although underreporting remains a significant concern due to stigma and gender norms (Karakurt and Silver, 2013; Hosain, 2025).”
From From use to abuse: psychological, neurobiological, and spiritual pathways in relational harm and recovery (2026) · cites this paper as Karakurt and Silver, 2013
The Introduction (page not provided) reports comparable rates of psychological aggression among men and women and describes verbal aggression and coercive control. The Discussion, “Emotional Abuse & Men” (page not provided), says abuse of men is stigmatized or unrecognized and that young men may not discuss it. It does not establish that underreporting is a significant concern caused by stigma and gender norms. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredEmotional abuse is a central component of intimate partner violence (IPV), encompassing verbal aggression, humiliation, ridicule, coercive control, social isolation, and symbolic intimidation.
“Emotional abuse is widely recognized within psychological literature as a central component of intimate partner violence (IPV), encompassing behaviors such as verbal aggression, humiliation, ridicule, coercive control, social isolation, and symbolic intimidation, including threats to valued relationships or property (Karakurt and Silver, 2013; Jung et al., 2019).”
From From use to abuse: psychological, neurobiological, and spiritual pathways in relational harm and recovery (2026) · cites this paper as Karakurt and Silver, 2013
The Introduction describes emotional abuse as a common form of IPV and lists verbal assault, humiliation, ridicule, control, isolation, and threats to destroy valued objects. It also calls property damage “symbolic violence.” The cited paper does not explicitly identify threats to valued relationships as an example, so that detail of the citing sentence is not supported by this source. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredLongitudinal data identified psychological violence as a precursor to later physical violence.
“In addition, longitudinal data identified psychological violence as a precursor to later physical violence (Karakurt & Silver, 2013), indicating potential escalation that may be prevented by early detection and intervention.”
From The relationship between emotional intimate partner violence and other forms of violence: A metaanalytic review. (2024) · cites this paper as Karakurt & Silver, 2013
The Introduction says emotional abuse is often a precursor to physical abuse and reports that early verbal abuse predicts subsequent physical spousal abuse. However, it attributes that finding to Schumacher and Leonard (2005); Karakurt and Silver’s Methods describe a one-time questionnaire study, not longitudinal data identifying the sequence themselves. The cited paper supports the precursor point, but not the claim that its own longitudinal data established it. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPhysical IPV treatments would benefit from elements focused on emotional IPV.
“Longitudinal evidence suggests that emotional violence treatments would decrease exposure to physical violence and that physical IPV treatments would benefit from elements focused on emotional IPV (Karakurt & Silver, 2013;Panuzio & DiLillo, 2010).”
From The relationship between emotional intimate partner violence and other forms of violence: A metaanalytic review. (2024) · cites this paper as Karakurt & Silver, 2013
The Discussion’s Practice Implications section (page unavailable) says counselors should recognize emotional abuse and that addressing it may prevent escalation to physical violence. This supports a rationale for focusing on emotional IPV, but the paper does not specifically assess or recommend adding emotional-IPV elements to physical-IPV treatments. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredEmotional violence treatments would decrease exposure to physical violence.
“Longitudinal evidence suggests that emotional violence treatments would decrease exposure to physical violence and that physical IPV treatments would benefit from elements focused on emotional IPV (Karakurt & Silver, 2013;Panuzio & DiLillo, 2010).”
From The relationship between emotional intimate partner violence and other forms of violence: A metaanalytic review. (2024) · cites this paper as Karakurt & Silver, 2013
The Discussion’s Practice Implications section (page unavailable) says emotional abuse should be addressed to prevent escalation to physical violence. That supports the rationale for treatment, but the paper does not report longitudinal evidence that emotional-violence treatments decrease exposure to physical violence. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
The citation lists haven’t been fetched yet
References 63 · Cited by 211
Research works printed but not linked: 50
- Archer J 2000 Sex differences in aggression between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review Psychological Bulletin 126 651 680 10989615
- Archer J 2004 Sex differences in aggression in real-world settings: A meta-analytic review Review of General Psychology 8 291 322
- Blosnich J Bossarte R 2009 Comparisons of intimate partner violence among partners in same-sex and opposite-sex relationships in the United States American Journal of Public Health 99 2182 2184 19834003 PMC2775776
- Brown GW Moran PM 1997 Single mothers, poverty, and depression Psychological Medicine 27 21 33 9122302
- Byrne B 2010 Structural Equation Modeling with Amos Ottawa Routledge
- Campbell JC 2002 Health consequences of intimate partner violence Lancet 359 1331 1336 11965295
- Coker AL McKeown RE Sanderson M Davis KE Valois RF Huebner ES 2000a Severe dating violence and quality of life among South Carolina high school students American Journal of Preventative Medicine 19 220 227 11064224
- Coker AL Derrick C Lumpkin JL Aldrich TE Oldendick R 2000b Help-seeking for intimate partner violence and forced sex in South Carolina American Journal of Preventative Medicine 19 316 20 11064237
- Coker AL Davis KE Arias I Desai S Sanderson M Brandt HM Smith PH 2002 Physical and mental health effects of intimate partner violence for men and women American Journal of Preventative Medicine 23 260 268 12406480
- Crick NR Grotpeter JK 1995 Relational aggression, gender, and social-psychological adjustment Child Development 66 710 722 7789197
- Engel B 2002 The emotionally abusive relationship: How to stop being abused and how to stop abusing New Jersey John Wiley & Sons
- Faver C Strand E 2007 Fear, guilt, and grief: Harm to pets and the emotional abuse of women Journal of Emotional Abuse 7 51 70
- Flitcraft A 1995 Project SAFE: Domestic violence education for practicing physicians Women’s Health Issues 5 183 188 8574113
- Follingstad DR Coyne S Gambone L 2005 A representative measure of psychological aggression and its severity Violence and Victims 20 25 38 16047933
- Goetting A 1991 Female victims of homicide: A portrait of their killers and the circumstances of their duties Violence and Victims 6 159 168 1742242
- Gondolf EW Heckert DA Kimmel CM 2002 Nonphysical abuse among batterer program participants Journal of Family Violence 17 293 314
- Hamberger LK 2005 Men’s and women’s use of intimate partner violence in clinical samples: Toward a gender sensitive approach Violence and Victims 2 2 131 151 16075663
- Harned M 2001 Abused women or abused men? An examination of the context and outcomes of dating violence Violence and Victims 16 269 285 11437117
- Hines DA Saudino KJ 2003 Gender differences in psychological, physical, and sexual aggression among college students using the Revised Conflict Tactics Scales Violence and Victims 18 2 197 217 12816404
- Jacobson N Gottman JM Gortner E Berns S Shortt JW 1996 Psychological factors in the longitudinal course of battering: When do couples split up? When does the abuse decrease? Violence and Victims 11 371 392 9210278
- Johnson MP 1995 Patriarchal terrorism and common couple violence: Two forms of violence against women Journal of Marriage and the Family 57 283 294
- Lammers M Ritchie J Robertson N 2005 Women’s experience of emotional abuse in intimate relationships: A qualitative study Journal of Emotional Abuse 5 1 29 64
- Lynch JW Kaplan GA Shema SJ 1997 Cumulative impact of sustained economic hardship on physical, cognitive, psychological, and social functioning New England Journal of Medicine 337 1889 1895 9407157
- Marshall L 1996 Psychological abuse of women: Six distinct clusters Journal of Family Violence 11 4 379 409
- McCloskey LA Treviso M Scionti T daPozzo G 2002 A comparative study of battered women and their children in Italy and the United States Journal of Family Violence 17 53 74
- Mezey NJ Post LA Maxwell CD 2002 Redefining intimate partner violence: Women’s experiences with physical violence and non-physical abuse by age International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 22 122 154
- Mills L Mills T Taliaferro E Zimbler A Smith D 2003 The prevalence of female-to-male intimate partner violence in an urban emergency department Journal of Emergency Medicine 25 2 215 218 12902014
- Molidor C Tolman R 1998 Gender and contextual factors in adolescent dating violence Violence Against Women 4 180 194 12295440
- O’Leary KD Maiuro RD 2001 Psychological abuse in violent domestic relations New York Springer
- O’Leary KD Maiuro RD 2001 Psychological abuse in violent domestic relations New York Springer
- Rivara FP 2009 Age, period, and cohort effects on intimate partner violence Violence and Victims 24 627 638 19852403
- Rusbult CE Martz JM 1995 Remaining in an abusive relationship: An investment model analysis of non-voluntary commitment Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 21 558 571
- Sackett LA Saunders DG 1999 The impact of different forms of psychological abuse on battered women Violence and Victims 14 105 117 10397629
- Schumacher JA Leonard KE 2005 Husbands’ and wives’ marital adjustment, verbal aggression, and physical aggression in early marriage Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 73 28 37 15709829
- Shepherd MF Campbell JA 1992 The Abusive Behavior Inventory: A Measure of psychological and physical abuse Journal of Interpersonal Violence 7 3 291 305
- Smith PH Earp JA DeVellis R 1995 Measuring battering: Development of the women’s experience with battering (WEB) scale Women’s Health 1 4 273 288 9373384
- Smith PH Smith JB Earp JA 1999 Beyond the measurement trap: A reconstructed conceptualization and measurement of battered women Psychology of Women Quarterly 23 177 193
- Smith PH Tessaro I Earp JA 1995 Women’s experiences with battering: A conceptualization from qualitative research Women’s Health Issues 5 173 182 8574112
- Straus MA 1979 Measuring intrafamily conflict and violence: The Conflict Tactics (CT) Scales Journal of Marriage and Family 41 1 75 88
- Straus MA Loseke DR Gelles RJ Cavanaugh MM 2005 Women’s violence toward men is a serious social problem Current controversies on family violence 2 55 77 Newbury Park Sage Publications
- Straus MA Hamby SL Bonney-McCoy S Sugarman DB 1996 The revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2) Journal of Family Issues 17 283 316
- Straus MA Ramirez IL 2007 Gender symmetry in prevalence, severity, and chronicity of physical aggression against dating partners by university students in Mexico and United States Aggressive Behavior 33 281 290 17593556
- Tan C Basta J Sullivan CM Davidson WS 1995 The long-term effects of battering on women’s health Women’s Health: Research on Gender, Behavior, and Policy 4 41 70 9520606
- Tolman RM 1989 The development of a measure of psychological maltreatment of women by their male partners Violence and Victims 4 3 159 177 2487132
- Van Houdenhove B 2001 Victimization in chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia in tertiary care: A controlled study on prevalence and characteristics Psychosomatics 42 21 28 11161117
- Waltermaurer E 2005 Measuring intimate partner violence (IPV): You may only get what you ask for Journal of Interpersonal Violence 20 501 506 15722507
- White J Klein D 2002 Family Theories Thousand Oaks, CA Sage Publications
- Williams JR Ghandour RM Kub JE 2008 Female perpetration of violence in heterosexual intimate relationships: Adolescence through adulthood Trauma, Violence & Abuse 9 227 249 PMC2663360 18936281
- Wilson MI Johnson H Daly M 1995 Lethal and nonlethal violence against wives Canadian Journal of Criminology 37 331 361
- Zink TC Jacobson J Regan S Pabst S 2004 Hidden victims: The healthcare needs and experiences of older women in abusive relationships Journal of Women’s Health 13 898 908 15671705
- Authors
- Karakurt, G., & Silver, K. E.
- Affiliations
- Case Western Reserve University (US)
- Venue
- Violence and Victims
- Publisher
- Springer Publishing Company
- Published
- 2013
- Volume
- 28
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 804-821
- ISSN
- 0886-6708 (ISSN-L)
- 1945-7073
- PMC
- PMC3876290
- OpenAlex
- W2018558331
- Cited by
- 211
- References
- 63
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 30 · 2023: 38 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 2
- FWCI
- 3.41
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Violence and Victims (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Korea University Business School
- National Institutes of Health (UL1TR000439)
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Intimate Partner and Family Violence
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Demography › Elder Abuse and Neglect
- Keywords
- emotional abuse, intimate relationships, gender differences, age differences, moderating effect, isolation, degradation, sexual abuse, property damage, social exchange theory, conflict, dating violence
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Age Factors, Anxiety, Attitude to Health, Emotions, Female, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Loneliness, Male, Middle Aged, Quality of Life, Surveys and Questionnaires, Self Concept, Sex Factors, Sexual Partners, Spouse Abuse, Crime Victims, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
