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Visual aids and structured criteria for improving visual inspection and interpretation of single-case designs
Open accessAbstract
Because behavior analysis is a data-driven process, a critical skill for behavior analysts is accurate visual inspection and interpretation of single-case data. Study 1 was a basic study in which we increased the accuracy of visual inspection methods for A-B designs through two refinements of the split-middle (SM) method called the dual-criteria (DC) and conservative dual-criteria (CDC) methods. The accuracy of these visual inspection methods was compared with one another and with two statistical methods (Allison & Gorman, 1993; Gottman, 1981) using a computer-simulated Monte Carlo study. Results indicated that the DC and CDC methods controlled Type I error rates much better than the SM method and had considerably higher power (to detect real treatment effects) than the two statistical methods. In Study 2, brief verbal and written instructions with modeling were used to train 5 staff members to use the DC method, and in Study 3, these training methods were incorporated into a slide presentation and were used to rapidly (i.e., 15 min) train a large group of individuals (N = 87). Interpretation accuracy increased from a baseline mean of 55% to a treatment mean of 94% in Study 2 and from a baseline mean of 71% to a treatment mean of 95% in Study 3. Thus, Study 1 answered basic questions about the accuracy of several methods of interpreting A-B designs; Study 2 showed how that information could be used to increase the accuracy of human visual inspectors; and Study 3 showed how the training procedures from Study 2 could be modified into a format that would facilitate rapid training of large groups of individuals to interpret single-case designs.
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“Conservative dual-criterion (CDC; Fisher et al., 2003; Swoboda et al., 2010) analyses were also conducted to increase reliability of visual inspection.”
From Feasibility and preliminary outcomes of compassion-focused acceptance and commitment therapy delivered via telehealth in a community behavioral health clinic (2025) · cites this paper as Fisher et al., 2003
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Group Procedures for Decreasing Problem Behavior Displayed by Detained Adolescents
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Patterned changes in urge ratings with tic suppression in youth with chronic tic disorders
Brabson, L. A., Brown, J. L., Capriotti, M. R., Ramanujam, K., Himle, M. B., Nicotra, C. M., Ostrander, R. S., Kelly, L. M., Grados, M. A., Walkup, J. T., et al. (2015) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2015.07.004 · Cited by 20
Zeitlin, W., Auerbach, C., Mason, S. E., Spivak, L. G., & Reiter, B. (2016) · Health & Social Work · doi:10.1093/hsw/hlw061 · Cited by 20
Establishing Interventions via a Theory-Driven Single Case Design Research Cycle
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“However, Fisher, Kelley, and Lomas (2003) recommended researchers use caution when using visual analysis, suggesting it might be disproportionately prone to Type I errors (i.e., conclusions that an intervention effect is present when in fact it is not).”
BackgroundBarnard-Brak, L. M., Richman, D. M., Little, T. D., & Yang, Z. (2017) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2017.12.003 · Cited by 20
A Proof of Concept Analysis of Decision-Making with Time-Series Data
Cox, D. J., & Brodhead, M. T. (2021) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/s40732-020-00451-w · Cited by 19
Comparison of sounds and words as sample stimuli for discrimination training
Halbur, M. E., Kodak, T. M., Williams, X., Reidy, J., & Halbur, C. R. (2021) · Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis · doi:10.1002/jaba.830 · Cited by 19
An Evaluation of Prompting and Reinforcement for Training Visual Analysis Skills
Young, N. D., & Daly, E. J. (2015) · Journal of Behavioral Education · doi:10.1007/s10864-015-9234-z · Cited by 19
Fisher, W. W., Pawich, T. L., Dickes, N. R., Paden, A. R., & Toussaint, K. A. (2014) · Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis · doi:10.1002/jaba.172 · Cited by 19
Self-citationder Merwe, A. V., & Steyn, M. (2017) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2017_ajslp-15-0193 · Cited by 19
“The CDC analyses (Fisher et al., 2003), however, indicated an unreliable treatment effect of Set 1 stimuli due to rising baseline scores.”
MethodInfluentialCoon, J. C., Bush, H., & Rapp, J. T. (2022) · Behavior Analysis in Practice · doi:10.1007/s40617-022-00682-z · Cited by 18
“We used visual analysis in conjunction with the dual criterion (DC) method (Fisher et al., 2003) to detect differences between service indicators (i.”
MethodOn the Efficiency and Control of Different Functional Analysis Formats
Jessel, J., Hanley, G. P., Ghaemmaghami, M., & Carbone, M. J. (2021) · Education and Treatment of Children · doi:10.1007/s43494-021-00059-x · Cited by 18
“…Analyst Certification Board, 2014), have led some researchers to focus on practical aspects of functional analyses, such as the efficiency of the analysis (see Hanley, 2012, for review) and interpretations of control (e.g., Fisher et al., 2003; Hagopian et al., 1997; Jessel et al., 2020b, 2020c).”
BackgroundDetecting False Positives in A-B Designs
Krueger, T. K., Rapp, J. T., Ott, L. M., Lood, E. A., & Novotny, M. A. (2012) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/0145445512468754 · Cited by 18
“…the objectivity of visually inspected data in single-subject designs (Brossart, Parker, Olson, & Mahadevan, 2006; DeProspero & Cohen, 1979; Fisher et al., 2003; Hagopian, Fisher, Thompson, & Owen-DeSchryver, 1997; Kahng et al., 2010; Normand & Bailey, 2006; Ottenbacher, 1990; Stewart,…”
Tompkins, C. A., Blake, M. T., Wambaugh, J. L., & Meigh, K. M. (2011) · Aphasiology · doi:10.1080/02687038.2010.539784 · Cited by 18
“The two dotted lines superimposed on the session data represent the criterion lines calculated using the conservative dual criterion (CDC; Fisher et al., 2003) method.”
MethodAssessing Functional Relations in Single-Case Designs
Manolov, R., Sierra, V., Solanas, A., & Botella, J. (2014) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/0145445514545679 · Cited by 18
Hua, Y., Yuan, C., Monroe, K., Hinzman, M., Alqahtani, S. S., Alwahbi, A. A., & Kern, A. M. (2016) · Developmental Neurorehabilitation · doi:10.3109/17518423.2016.1139011 · Cited by 18
Using e‐learning modules to teach ongoing‐visual inspection of functional analyses
Retzlaff, B. J., Phillips, L. A., Fisher, W. W., Hardee, A. M., & Fuhrman, A. M. (2020) · Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis · doi:10.1002/jaba.719 · Cited by 18
Self-citationO’Grady, A. C., Reeve, S. A., Reeve, K. F., Vladescu, J. C., & Lake, C. M. (2018) · Behavior Analysis in Practice · doi:10.1007/s40617-018-0266-4 · Cited by 17
“For instance, Fisher et al. (2003) taught participants to identify a reliable change in behavior in A-B graphs.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialWambaugh, J., Wright, S., Mauszycki, S. C., Nessler, C., & Bailey, D. J. (2018) · International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1080/17549507.2016.1267262 · Cited by 11
“In order to predict expected performance in the absence of treatment, the adjusted trend and level lines were extended into the following treatment phase (Fisher et al., 2003; Swoboda, Kratochwill, & Levin, 2010).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialTechnical Adequacy for Response to Intervention Practices
Barnett, D. W., Elliott, N., Graden, J., Ihlo, T., Macmann, G., Nantais, M., & Prasse, D. (2006) · Assessment for Effective Intervention · doi:10.1177/15345084060320010401 · Cited by 26
Miller-Kuhaneck, H., Watling, R. L., & Glennon, T. J. (2023) · American Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.5014/ajot.2023.050169 · Cited by 16
“The resulting line graphs were visually analyzed using standard criteria, including examination of between-phase changes, for level, trend, immediacy of effect, and consistency (Fisher et al., 2003; Gast & Ledford, 2014; Kazdin, 2011; Kratochwill et al., 2013).”
Préfontaine, I., Lanovaz, M. J., McDuff, E., McHugh, C., & Cook, J. L. (2017) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/0145445517748560 · Cited by 16
“To determine whether the data paths are differentiated, we recommend integrating the dual-criteria method of visual analysis developed by Fisher, Kelley, and Lomas (2003) within the app.”
MethodThe Analysis of Single-Case Research Data: Current Instructional Practices
Wolfe, K., & McCammon, M. N. (2020) · Journal of Behavioral Education · doi:10.1007/s10864-020-09403-4 · Cited by 16
Remote teaching of publication‐quality, single‐case graphs in Microsoft Excel
Lehardy, R. K., Luczynski, K. C., Hood, S. A., & McKeown, C. A. (2021) · Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis · doi:10.1002/jaba.805 · Cited by 16
Quantification of behavioral data with effect sizes and statistical significance tests
Costello, M. S., Bagley, R. F., Bustamante, L. F., & Deochand, N. (2022) · Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis · doi:10.1002/jaba.938 · Cited by 16
Defining and assessing immediacy in single‐case experimental designs
Manolov, R., & Onghena, P. (2022) · Journal of The Experimental Analysis of Behavior · doi:10.1002/jeab.799 · Cited by 15
“The possibilities for assessing trends have also been discussed in several articles, including a focus on the split-middle technique (Fisher et al., 2003; Miller, 1985), the trisplit technique (Parker et al., 2014) or Tukey’s resistant trend line (Franklin, Gorman, et al., 1996), the MannKendall…”
MethodManolov, R., Tanious, R., & Onghena, P. (2021) · Perspectives on Behavior Science · doi:10.1007/s40614-021-00289-9 · Cited by 15
“For instance, the conservative dual criterion fits a mean line and a trend line to the baseline data and extends them into the intervention phase for comparison (Fisher et al., 2003).”
BackgroundMethodLane, J. D., Shepley, C., & Spriggs, A. D. (2019) · Remedial and Special Education · doi:10.1177/0741932519873120 · Cited by 15
“Fisher, Kelley, and Lomas (2003) trained individuals who worked as behavior therapists in a severe behavior treatment facility to visually inspect A-B graphs and exclusively focused on mean lines and a split-middle procedure to estimate trend; evaluation of errors was limited to visual inspection…”
BackgroundMethodPhase-change lines, scale breaks, and trend lines using Excel 2013
Deochand, N., Costello, M. S., & Fuqua, R. W. (2015) · Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis · doi:10.1002/jaba.198 · Cited by 14
Falligant, J. M., McNulty, M. K., Kranak, M. P., Hausman, N. L., & Rooker, G. W. (2020) · Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis · doi:10.1002/jaba.710 · Cited by 14
“…was to extend findings by Scheithauer et al. (2020) by evaluating the proportion of false positives for baseline series generated by FA data and original baseline data collection using procedures developed by Fisher et al. (2003) and employed in a manner similar to Lanovaz et al. (2017).”
MethodInfluentialTeaching Research and Practice Evaluation Skills to Graduate Social Work Students
Wong, S. E., & Vakharia, S. P. (2012) · Research on Social Work Practice · doi:10.1177/1049731512451060 · Cited by 13
Issues and Advances in the Systematic Review of Single-Case Research: A Commentary on the Exemplars
Manolov, R., Guilera, G., & Solanas, A. (2017) · Remedial and Special Education · doi:10.1177/0741932517726143 · Cited by 13
“, 2010) and from Gast and Spriggs (2014), but more detail about the process and its results could have been provided (e.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialRegression-based techniques for statistical decision making in single-case designs.
Manolov, R., Arnau, J., Solanas, A., & Bono, R. (2010) · PubMed · Cited by 13
A single‐case multiple baseline design for treating insomnia in eating disorders: The TIRED study
Christensen, K. A., Forbush, K. T., Elliott, B. T., & Jarmolowicz, D. P. (2020) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.23450 · Cited by 12
Ortega, J. V., Moeyaert, M., Sivaraman, M., Tarifa‐Rodríguez, A., & Fernández‐Castilla, B. (2023) · Autism and child psychopathology series · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-19964-6_28 · Cited by 12
Tutorial: Artificial neural networks to analyze single-case experimental designs.
Lanovaz, M. J., & Bailey, J. D. (2022) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/met0000487 · Cited by 11
Misjudgment of interrupted time-series graphs due to serial dependence: Replication of
Bishara, A. J., Peller, J., & Galuska, C. M. (2021) · Judgment and Decision Making · doi:10.1017/s1930297500007786 · Cited by 11
“Second, each condition was represented by just one graph, so if that one graph happened to have sampling error in the shape of an intervention effect, then the Type I error rate would be artificially inflated for that condition (Fisher et al., 2003).”
BackgroundInfluentialDoes the choice of a linear trend-assessment technique matter in the context of single-case data?
Manolov, R. (2023) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-022-02013-0 · Cited by 11
“Given that the underlying logic of the binomial quantification used is part of the conservative dual criteria (Fisher et al., 2003), some modifications of these criteria may be worthwhile exploring.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWilson, K. P. (2011) · Evidence-Based Communication Assessment and Intervention · doi:10.1080/17489539.2011.623859 · Cited by 11
“For researchers wishing to avoid such pitfalls, other options include more structured, systematic visual analysis methods (see Fisher, Kelly, & Lomas, 2003 ; Gast, 2010 ).”
MethodWaiting for baseline stability in single-case designs: Is it worth the time and effort?
Lanovaz, M. J., & Primiani, R. (2022) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-022-01858-9 · Cited by 11
“To extend prior research, we selected two methods that have never been used to examine response-guided decision-making for single-case designs: the conservative dualcriteria (CDC; Fisher et al., 2003) and machine learning (Hranchuk & Lanovaz.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialA proposal for the assessment of replication of effects in single‐case experimental designs
Manolov, R., Tanious, R., & Fernández‐Castilla, B. (2022) · Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis · doi:10.1002/jaba.923 · Cited by 11
“For instance, the conservative dual criterion (Fisher et al., 2003) involves representing mean and trend, and the application of statistical process control (Callahan & Barisa, 2005; Pfadt & Wheeler, 1995) involves representing mean and variability.”
BackgroundAn Aphasia Treatment for Verbs With Low Concreteness: A Pilot Study
Bailey, D. J., Nessler, C., Berggren, K. N., & Wambaugh, J. L. (2019) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2019_ajslp-18-0257 · Cited by 11
Assessing Consistency in Single-Case Data Features Using Modified Brinley Plots
Manolov, R., & Tanious, R. (2020) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/0145445520982969 · Cited by 11
“Thus, the current proposals are an adequate illustration of the frequently suggested joint use of visual and statistical analysis (Fisher et al., 2003; Harrington & Velicer, 2015; Karazsia, 2018).”
MethodRuckle, M. M., Bednar, M. K., Suen, K., & Falligant, J. M. (2022) · Behavioral Interventions · doi:10.1002/bin.1881 · Cited by 11
Giannakakos, A. R., & Lanovaz, M. J. (2019) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/0145445519860219 · Cited by 11
“Second, the dual-criteria method of analysis (see Fisher et al., 2003) applied to each graph had limited power that may have biased some of the results.”
MethodStrickland, W. D., Boon, R. T., & Mason, L. L. (2020) · Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities · doi:10.1007/s10882-019-09718-9 · Cited by 11
Interventions for Autism Spectrum Disorders: State of the evidence
(2009) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e533422010-001 · Cited by 11
Correspondence between Fail-Safe k and Dual-Criteria Methods: Analysis of Data Series Stability
Falligant, J. M., Kranak, M. P., Schmidt, J. D., & Rooker, G. W. (2020) · Perspectives on Behavior Science · doi:10.1007/s40614-020-00255-x · Cited by 11
Brief report: mobile technology to support parents in reducing stereotypy
Trudel, L., Lanovaz, M. J., & Préfontaine, I. (2021) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04735-6 · Cited by 10
Auerbach, C., & Schudrich, W. Z. (2013) · Research on Social Work Practice · doi:10.1177/1049731513477213 · Cited by 10
“Despite these limitations, SINGWIN has been effectively used in published research studies (e.g., Cole, 2002; Schudrich, 2012), and SINGWIN has been promoted as an effective tool for analyzing data in single-subject research (Fisher et al., 2003; Jindani & Newman, 2006; Rock & Cooper, 2000).”
MethodEffects of graphing conventions and response options on interpretation of small n graphs
Carter, M. (2009) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410903204315 · Cited by 10
“Fisher et al. (2003) analysed a graph that proved difficult for raters to correctly interpret in the Matyas and Greenwood (1990) study.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialHamrick, S. A., Richling, S. M., Brogan, K. M., Rapp, J. T., & Davis, W. T. (2020) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/0145445520915676 · Cited by 10
“See pg. 399 of Fisher et al. (2003) for a Table containing the number of data points within a treatment phase needed to demonstrate a reliable treatment effect with the CDC method.”
MethodMachine Learning for Supplementing Behavioral Assessment
Bailey, J. D., Baker, J. C., Rzeszutek, M. J., & Lanovaz, M. J. (2021) · Perspectives on Behavior Science · doi:10.1007/s40614-020-00273-9 · Cited by 11
Lebrault, H., Chavanne, C., Abada, G., Latinovic, B., Varillon, S., Bertrand, A.-F., Oudjedi, E., Krasny‐Pacini, A., & Chevignard, M. (2021) · Annals of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.rehab.2021.101535 · Cited by 10
Application of automated nonparametric statistical analysis in clinical contexts
Kranak, M. P., Falligant, J. M., & Hausman, N. L. (2020) · Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis · doi:10.1002/jaba.789 · Cited by 10
New Directions for the Study of Within-Individual Variability in Development: The Power of “N = 1”
Barbot, B., & Perchec, C. (2015) · New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development · doi:10.1002/cad.20085 · Cited by 10
“This is denoted by the number of points that fall in the predicted direction according to the level and trend lines computed at each preceding phase data (Fisher et al., 2003).”
Sarasti, I. A. (2007) · doi:10.12794/metadc3919 · Cited by 10
Carlin, M. T., & Costello, M. S. (2021) · Perspectives on Behavior Science · doi:10.1007/s40614-021-00317-8 · Cited by 9
“Indeed, several studies have found visual analysis of SCED data to be unreliable (DeProspero & Cohen, 1979; Fisher et al., 2003; Lanovaz et al., 2020; Ninci et al., 2015; Wolfe et al., 2016, 2018).”
BackgroundUsing Single-Case Design and Personalized Behavior Change Projects to Teach Research Methods
Morgan, D. L. (2009) · Teaching of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00986280903175715 · Cited by 9
Representativeness of direct observations selected using a work‐sampling equation
Sharp, R. A., Mudford, O. C., & Elliffe, D. M. (2015) · Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis · doi:10.1002/jaba.193 · Cited by 9
The Use of Electropalatography in the Treatment of Acquired Apraxia of Speech
Mauszycki, S. C., Wright, S., Dingus, N., & Wambaugh, J. L. (2016) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2016_ajslp-15-0144 · Cited by 9
“…number of data points ded From: http://ajslp.pubs.asha.org/ by a Univ Of Newcastle User on 12/22/ f Use: http://pubs.asha.org/ss/rights_and_permissions.aspx fall above both lines (see Fisher et al., 2003, and Swoboda, Kratochwill, & Levin, 2010, for a more detailed explanation of the CDC method).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialUsing SRSD to Improve the Fraction Computations of Students With and At-Risk for EBD
Losinski, M. L., Ennis, R. P., & Shaw, A. (2020) · Behavioral Disorders · doi:10.1177/0198742920912737 · Cited by 9
“Because visual analysis of graphed data leading to a determination of a functional relation has been deemed to be unreliable (Danov & Symons, 2008; Fisher et al., 2003), we complemented visual analysis by calculating mean scores, standard deviations (SD), standard errors (SEyx), and slopes for each…”
MethodThree Alternatives for Graphing Behavioral Data: A Comparison of Usability and Acceptability
Kinney, C. E. L., Begeny, J. C., Stage, S. A., Patterson, S., & Johnson, A. (2020) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/0145445520946321 · Cited by 9
“…Wolfe et al., 2019), others have developed additional statistics or graphic aides (e.g., trend lines) to assist visual interpretation of data (e.g., Fisher et al., 2003; Lane & Gast, 2014; Lane & Sándor, 2009; Manolov & Vannest, 2019), and some suggest more intensive training (e.g., Blair et al.,…”
MethodResultAssessing Student Response to Intervention
Olson, S. C., Daly, E. J., Andersen, M. N., Turner, A. M., & LeClair, C. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-49053-3_9 · Cited by 9
“Structured criteria for visual inspection which determine statistical significance and which do a good job of controlling decision errors have been recently developed and could be used as well ( Fisher, Kelly, and Lomas, 2003 ).”
MethodEditorial: New Instructions for Single-Subject Research in the Journal of Pediatric Psychology
Karazsia, B. T. (2018) · Journal of Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsy039 · Cited by 9
How to assess and take into account trend in single-case experimental design data
Manolov, R., Lebrault, H., & Krasny‐Pacini, A. (2023) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602011.2023.2190129 · Cited by 8
“The split-middle technique has been discussed in the context of visual analysis (Lane & Gast, 2014) or as part of the dual criteria providing formal decision rules (Fisher et al., 2003).”
BackgroundMethodThe Case for Integrated Advanced Technology in Applied Behavior Analysis
Neely, L. C., Carnett, A., Quarles, J. P., MacNaul, H. L., Park, S., Oyama, S., Chen, G., Desai, K., & Najafirad, P. (2022) · Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s41252-022-00309-y · Cited by 10
“Analysis of the resulting data using visual analysis is also limited (Fisher et al., 2003; Ninci et al., 2015).”
MethodDeveloping Behavioral Fluency with Movement Cycles Using SAFMEDS
Kubina, R. M., Yurich, K. K. L., Durica, K. C., & Healy, N. M. (2015) · Journal of Behavioral Education · doi:10.1007/s10864-015-9232-1 · Cited by 8
“…SCCs quantify the following important features of visual analysis: trend, trend stability, variability, immediacy of an effect, and the consistency of data patterns across phases (Barlow et al. 2009; Fisher et al. 2003; Kazdin 2011; Kennedy 2005; Kratochwill et al. 2013; Parsonson and Baer 1978).”
BackgroundAlresheed, F., & Machalicek, W. (2023) · Evidence-Based Communication Assessment and Intervention · doi:10.1080/17489539.2023.2200813 · Cited by 7
“Examples of visual aids are the dual-criteria (DC) method developed by Fisher et al. (2003) and the split-middle and interquartile range (SMIQR) developed by Manolov et al. (2015).”
Agreement between visual inspection and objective analysis methods: A replication and extension
Taylor, T., & Lanovaz, M. J. (2022) · Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis · doi:10.1002/jaba.921 · Cited by 7
“1 et al., 2017), studies have also noted that their power could be improved (Fisher et al., 2003; Manolov & Vannest, 2019).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialFurther evaluation of a decision‐making algorithm supporting visual analysis of time‐series data
Kril, D. N., Brodhead, M. T., & Moorehouse, A. G. (2022) · Behavioral Interventions · doi:10.1002/bin.1895 · Cited by 7
Bontemps, M., Servières-Bordes, M., & Moritz‐Gasser, S. (2024) · International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1080/17549507.2023.2289351 · Cited by 7
“Visual analysis included the study of within-phase level (mean) and trend, combined according to the dual-criterion method (Fisher et al., 2003) as recommended by Krasny-Pacini and Evans (2018).”
A Binomial Test of Group Differences With Correlated Outcome Measures
Onwuegbuzie, A., Levin, J., & Ferron, J. (2011) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220970903352761 · Cited by 6
“An analogous problem exists in the Fisher et al. (2003) procedure. than would be expected by chance (i.e., p = .5).”
BackgroundMethodProbability and Visual Aids for Assessing Intervention Effectiveness in Single-Case Designs
Manolov, R., Jamieson, M., Evans, J. J., & Sierra, V. (2015) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/0145445515593512 · Cited by 7
The SAINT: A Guided Self-Help Approach for People With Intellectual Disabilities
Chaplin, E., Craig, T., McCarthy, J. M., & Bouras, N. (2017) · Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1080/19315864.2017.1284287 · Cited by 7
Can Dogs Learn Concepts the Same Way We Do? Concept Formation in a German Shepherd
Feuerbacher, E. N., & Rosales‐Ruiz, J. (2017) · International Journal of Comparative Psychology · doi:10.46867/ijcp.2017.30.01.05 · Cited by 7
Cook, J. L., Rapp, J. T., & Brogan, K. M. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-03213-5_9 · Cited by 7
Barnard-Brak, L. M., Watkins, L., & Richman, D. M. (2020) · Evidence-Based Communication Assessment and Intervention · doi:10.1080/17489539.2020.1738625 · Cited by 7
“Moreover, there is precedence for using this metric with attempts to standardize methods for visually inspecting SCED data (Fisher et al., 2003; Hagopian et al., 1997).”
BackgroundMethodFalligant, J. M., Kranak, M. P., & Hagopian, L. P. (2021) · Perspectives on Behavior Science · doi:10.1007/s40614-021-00313-y · Cited by 7
“For example, the dual-criteria (DC) and conservative dual-criteria (CDC) methods (Fisher et al., 2003) have been used to improve the accuracy of visual analysis with a variety of SCED datasets (e.”
MethodInfluentialComparing the Effects of Two Reading Interventions Using a Randomized Alternating Treatment Design
Hua, Y., Hinzman, M., Yuan, C., & Balint‐Langel, K. (2019) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/0014402919881357 · Cited by 7
Warburton, E. J., Caldarella, P., Wills, H. P., & Winters, R. R. (2023) · Journal of Behavioral Education · doi:10.1007/s10864-023-09538-0 · Cited by 6
“Fisher’s conservative dual-criterion (CDC) method was used to supplement visual analysis and reduce the chances of a Type I error (Fisher et al., 2003).”
Visual Analysis of Single-Case Experimental Designs Data: Beyond Time-Series Graphs
Tanious, R., & Manolov, R. (2025) · Single Case in the Social Sciences · doi:10.15763/issn.1936-9298.2025.2.1.43-64 · Cited by 6
“However, it should be noted that the time-series aspect is a major strength of SCEDs in general, for example compared to the randomized group design.”
InfluentialDifferent criteria affect prevalence of relapse of behavior targeted for treatment
Podlesnik, C. A., Ritchey, C. M., Muething, C., & Falligant, J. M. (2024) · Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis · doi:10.1002/jaba.2927 · Cited by 6
Functional Analysis Decision-Making Considerations
Brown, K. R., Helvey, C. I., Kranak, M. P., & Lavin, A. (2025) · Behavior Analysis in Practice · doi:10.1007/s40617-025-01057-w · Cited by 6
“2 Hagopian et al. (1997) and modified by Fisher et al. (2003) and Roane et al. (2013).”
Measurement and Data Recording of Aggression
Zangrillo, A. N., Walker, S. G., Roane, H. S., Sullivan, W. E., Keller, D. L., & DeRosa, N. M. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-68549-2_1 · Cited by 6
A comparison of features and categorical cues to improve naming abilities in aphasia
Hashimoto, N., Widman, B., Kiran, S., & Richards, M. (2013) · Aphasiology · doi:10.1080/02687038.2013.814760 · Cited by 5
“Visual analyses using the CDC method (Fisher et al., 2003) revealed improvements for P2 (FEAT), P5 (CATG), P7 (CATG) and P8 (FEAT/CATG).”
MethodOn the effectiveness of performance-based adaptive automation
Sauer, J., Chavaillaz, A., & Wastell, D. G. (2016) · Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science · doi:10.1080/1463922x.2016.1207824 · Cited by 6
“Such simple inspection procedures can be based on rather formal criteria (e.g. using dual-criteria or conservative dual-criteria methods), as advocated by Fisher, Kelley, and Lomas (2003).”
MethodCox, A. D., Zonneveld, K. L. M., & Tardi, L. D. (2021) · Behavioral Interventions · doi:10.1002/bin.1793 · Cited by 6
Kranak, M. P., & Hall, S. S. (2021) · Perspectives on Behavior Science · doi:10.1007/s40614-021-00290-2 · Cited by 6
Machine Learning to Support Visual Inspection of Data: A Clinical Application
Taylor, T., & Lanovaz, M. J. (2021) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/01454455211038208 · Cited by 6
“Beyond reliability, results of research on the validity (accuracy and error rates) of visual inspection have also yielded mixed results (DeProspero & Cohen, 1979; Fisher et al., 2003; Kahng et al., 2010).”
BackgroundMethodPrecision of Curriculum-Based Measurement Reading Data: Considerations for Multiple-Baseline Designs
Klingbeil, D. A., Norman, E. R. V., & Nelson, P. M. (2017) · Journal of Behavioral Education · doi:10.1007/s10864-017-9282-7 · Cited by 6
Mauszycki, S. C., & Wambaugh, J. (2019) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2019_ajslp-cac48-18-0223 · Cited by 3
Jones, B. A. (2021) · Digital Commons - USU (Utah State University) · doi:10.26076/a888-fda0 · Cited by 6
Peltier, C. J., Smarinsky, E. C., Brown, C. L., Lewis, O. J., & Lee, D. Y. (2024) · Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation · doi:10.1080/21501378.2024.2342588 · Cited by 5
Metadata
- Authors
- Fisher, W. W., Kelley, M. E., & Lomas, J. E.
- Affiliations
- Louisiana State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Fisher, Wayne W.
- Venue
- Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2003-09
- Volume
- 36
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 387-406
- ISSN
- 0021-8855 (ISSN-L)
- 1938-3703
- PMC
- PMC1284456
- OpenAlex
- W2048320738
- Cited by
- 351
- References
- 28
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 21 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 14
- FWCI
- 3.65
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (5 R01 HD37837-03)
- National Institutes of Health (5r01hd037837-03)
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (5 R01 HD37837-03)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Behavioral and Psychological Studies
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Graphics and Computer-Aided Design › Data Visualization and Analytics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Human Resource Development and Performance Evaluation
- Keywords
- visual inspection, single-case experimental design, type I error control, statistical power, interpreting accuracy, employee training, modeling, behavior analysis
- MeSH terms
- Audiovisual Aids, Behavior Therapy, Computer Graphics, Computer Simulation, Humans, Mathematical Computing, Monte Carlo Method, Outcome and Process Assessment, Health Care, Regression Analysis, Software, Reproducibility of Results, Observer Variation
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