A Comparative Study of Living Conditions in Slums of Three Metro Cities in India

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The majority of the Muslim population in slums are from Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.

“It is noteworthy that majority of the Muslim population in slums are from Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The surveyed households are representative of the slum populations in Kolkata, Mumbai, and Delhi.

May combine two claims.

Majority of slum dwellers in any city are either from the native state (except Delhi) or originally from the North-Central region of India.

“The first noteworthy observation is that majority of the slums dwellers in any city are either from the native state (except Delhi) or originally from North-Central region of India.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The surveyed households are representative of the slum populations in Kolkata, Mumbai, and Delhi.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The regional origin categories used in Table 1 are meaningful and comparable across the three cities.

May combine two claims.

Members in nearly 23% of households in slums of Kolkata and JJ clusters of Delhi use non-personal standpipes and are required to travel or wait 30 minutes or more to access the water source.

“Members in nearly 23% of households in slums of Kolkata and JJ clusters of Delhi use non-personal standpipes are required to travel or wait 30 minutes or more in order to access the water source.”

May combine two claims.

The share of Muslim households is highest in Kolkata (31.5%) and lowest in Delhi's RR colonies (9.1%).

“The share of Muslim households is highest in Kolkata (31.5%) and lowest in Delhi's RR colonies (9.1%).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The surveyed households are representative of the slum populations in Kolkata, Mumbai, and Delhi.

May combine two claims.

In Mumbai, 18.7% constructions are only 10 year old or less and merely 12.9% households are more than 50 year old.

“In Mumbai on the other hand 18.7% constructions are only 10 year old or less and merely 12.9% households are more than 50 year old.”

May combine two claims.

Although the proportions of Kerosene users are negligible in Delhi, its use is prevalent among the households in Mumbai (37%) and is predominant in Kolkata (94.7%).

“Although the proportions of Kerosene users are negligible in Delhi, its use is prevalent among the households in Mumbai (37%) and is predominant in Kolkata (94.7%).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The uses of biomass fuel and to a lesser extent the uses of Kerosene may result in various kinds of health hazards to household members.

May combine two claims.

The in-migration of labourers and the process of slummification for Kolkata primed roughly during 1940-60 and since then it has been on the decline; for Mumbai it reached a peak roughly during 1970-80; and Delhi observed the major spurt of labour in-migration roughly during 1980s.

“The in-migration of labourers and the process of slummification for Kolkata primed roughly during 1940-60 and since then it has been on the decline. The same for Mumbai reached a peak roughly during 1970-80 and Delhi observed the major spurt of labour in-migration roughly during 1980s, which incidentally coincided with the phase of break in the slum eviction and rehabilitation process.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The surveyed households are representative of the slum populations in Kolkata, Mumbai, and Delhi.

May combine two claims.

In slums of Kolkata and JJ clusters nearly 11% of all households and in RR colonies around 4.6% of households use some type of biomass fuel for cooking purposes.

“In slums of Kolkata and JJ clusters nearly 11% of all households and in RR colonies around 4.6% of households use some type of biomass fuel for cooking purposes.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The uses of biomass fuel and to a lesser extent the uses of Kerosene may result in various kinds of health hazards to household members.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

More than 90% of household heads in the survey identified themselves as either Hindu or Muslim, so people from other religions are in minority in slums.

“In our survey, more than 90% household heads have identified themselves as either Hindu or Muslim and so people from other religions are in minority in slums.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The surveyed households are representative of the slum populations in Kolkata, Mumbai, and Delhi.

May combine two claims.

In RR colonies of Delhi, nearly 82% of households have access to non-shared personal facilities; another 5% has personal but shared toilet facility.

“The rate of access is much better in RR colonies of Delhi where nearly 82% of households have access to non-shared personal facilities; another 5% has personal but shared toilet facility.”

May combine two claims.

In Kolkata, 42.9% of constructions are more than 50 year old, nearly 69% of constructions are more than 30 year old and only 18.7% of constructions are 20 year old or less.

“In Kolkata, 42.9% of constructions are more than 50 year old, nearly 69% of constructions are more than 30 year old and only 18.7% of constructions are 20 year old or less.”

May combine two claims.

The sex ratio is consistently lower among the younger age group (14 years or less) than among adults (15 years or more); in Delhi's RR colonies, the sex ratio among the younger age group is only 840.

“Decomposing the overall sex ratio across two age groups - 14 years or less and 15 years or more, we find that the sex ratio is consistently lower among the younger groups. In Delhi's RR colonies, the sex ratio among the younger age group is only 840.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The surveyed households are representative of the slum populations in Kolkata, Mumbai, and Delhi.

May combine two claims.

For the rest of the assets, the incidence of possession is highest in Delhi's RR colonies except computers in which Mumbai has the highest incidence.

“For the rest of the assets, the incidence of possession is highest in Delhi's RR colonies except computers in which Mumbai has the highest incidence.”

May combine two claims.

In Kolkata, 37.9% of constructions are owned and 62% are rented, of which 37.5% are rented through thika or pagri tenancy.

“In Kolkata, however, only 37.9% of constructions are owned and as many as 62% of constructions are rented of which 37.5% are rented through thika or pagri tenancy.”

May combine two claims.

In Delhi's JJ clusters and RR colonies, over half of the households identify themselves as scheduled castes, while the share of scheduled caste in the other two cities is in the range of 20-25%.

“In Delhi's JJ clusters and RR colonies, over half of the households identify themselves as scheduled castes. The share of scheduled caste in other two cities is in the range of 20-25%.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The surveyed households are representative of the slum populations in Kolkata, Mumbai, and Delhi.

May combine two claims.

The drops in SAR beyond age 14 are 20-26% in Delhi's JJC and Kolkata; around 15% in Mumbai and Delhi's RR colonies.

“The drops are quite drastic (20-26%) in Delhi's JJC and Kolkata; whereas in Mumbai and Delhi's RR colonies, the drops are around 15%.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The statutory age requirement for admission to the first grade in most Indian states is above 5 (or 6) years.

May combine two claims.

Incidences of deprivation in slums of Kolkata and Delhi's JJ clusters are close and moderately high for the cooking arrangements indicator (over 40%).

“whereas close and moderately high for the indicator of cooking arrangements (over 40%) (see Table 5).”

May combine two claims.

The average material-deprivation score is highest in Kolkata (4.7), followed by Delhi's JJ clusters (4.2), Mumbai (3.2), and Delhi's RR colonies (2.0).

“The average deprivation score is highest in Kolkata (4.7), followed by (in order) Delhi's JJ clusters (4.2), Mumbai (3.2) and Delhi's RR colonies (2.0).”

May combine two claims.

The adult literacy rate is lowest (70.1%) in Delhi's JJ clusters, and highest in slums of Mumbai (89.9%).

“the adult literacy rate is lowest (70.1%) in Delhi's JJ clusters, and highest in slums of Mumbai (89.9%)”

May combine two claims.

In Kolkata, time to access the toilet facility is up to 1 minute for 66% of households, which is much lower than in Delhi JJ where more than 47% reported time to access higher than 5 minutes.

“in Kolkata the time to access the facility is much lower (upto 1 minute for 66% housheolds) than that in Delhi JJ (where more than 47% people reported time to access is higher than 5 minutes) (see Table 5).”

May combine two claims.

Slums in Mumbai and RR colonies do not have this problem, but members in 17.3% households in Mumbai and 8.3% households in RR colonies use standpipes and have access to water only for less than 2 hours per day.

“Slums in Mumbai and RR colonies do not have this problem, but looking at the duration of source we find that members in 17.3% households in Mumbai and 8.3% households in RR colonies use standpipes and have access to water only for less than 2 hours per day.”

May combine two claims.

The average household size of the surveyed households appears to be lower in slums of Mumbai and Kolkata; around 2/3 of the households in Delhi's JJ clusters and RR colonies have 5 or more members, whereas the corresponding incidences in Kolkata and Mumbai are only around half.

“The average household size of the surveyed households appears to be lower in slums of Mumbai and Kolkata. Around 2/3 of the households in Delhi's JJ clusters and RR colonies have more than 5 or more members, whereas the corresponding incidences in Kolkata and Mumbai are only around half.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The surveyed households are representative of the slum populations in Kolkata, Mumbai, and Delhi.

May combine two claims.

Only around a quarter of the heads in Delhi slums and two-fifth of the heads in Mumbai slums were born within the respective cities, while in Kolkata more than three-fifth of the heads were born within the city.

“The second noteworthy observation from Table 1, which links with the historical genesis of the slums of cities, is that only around a quarter of the heads in Delhi slums and two-fifth of the heads in Mumbai slums were born within respective cities. In Kolkata, on the other hand, more than three-fifth of the heads were born within the city.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The surveyed households are representative of the slum populations in Kolkata, Mumbai, and Delhi.

May combine two claims.

Slums in Mumbai have the highest coverage to standpipes, slums in RR colonies appear to have the highest coverage of personal standpipes; whereas slums in Kolkata have the lowest coverage of personal standpipes.

“Although slums in Mumbai have the highest coverage to standpipes, slums in RR colonies appear to have the highest coverage of personal standpipes; whereas slums in Kolkata have the lowest coverage of personal standpipes.”

May combine two claims.

In slums of Kolkata, Mumbai and JJ clusters of Delhi, less than three members reside per sleeping room in 27-29% of constructions, three or more but less than six members reside per sleeping room in majority of the constructions (52-59%), and 6 or more members reside per sleeping room in smallest fraction of constructions (12-19%).

“less than three members reside per sleeping room in 27-29% of constructions, three or more but less than six members reside per sleeping room in majority of the constructions (52-59%), and 6 or more members reside per sleeping room in smallest fraction of constructions (12-19%).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Unlike in rural areas, the competition for living spaces is more stringent in urban areas and especially in slums.

May combine two claims.

In Delhi, more than 80% of constructions are owned by the households; whereas only 12-15% of the constructions are rented.

“In Delhi, more than 80% of constructions are owned by the households; whereas only 12-15% of the constructions are rented.”

May combine two claims.

Majority of the semi-pucca or kutcha houses of Delhi JJ slums, although owned, are actually built on public lands and have been subjected to constant threat of eviction and demolition.

“Majority of the semi-pucca or kutcha houses of Delhi JJ slums, although owned, are actually built on public lands (railways, local government bodies etc.) and have been subjected to constant threat of eviction and demolition.”

May combine two claims.

The shares of households identifying themselves as other backward classes in slums of Delhi and Mumbai stand at 20-24%, but the corresponding share is quite low in Kolkata.

“The shares of households identifying themselves as other backward classes in slums of Delhi and Mumbai stand at 20-24%, but the corresponding share is quite low in Kolkata.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The surveyed households are representative of the slum populations in Kolkata, Mumbai, and Delhi.

May combine two claims.

Kolkata has witnessed larger pre-independence migration, whereas Mumbai and Delhi have witnessed relatively larger post-independence migration.

“Again, supporting the historical genesis, it is evident both from Figure 1 that Kolkata has witnessed a larger pre-independence migration, whereas Mumbai and Delhi has witnessed relatively larger post-independence migration.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The surveyed households are representative of the slum populations in Kolkata, Mumbai, and Delhi.

May combine two claims.

Incidences of deprivation in slums of Kolkata and Delhi's JJ clusters are close to each other and reasonably high for the sanitation indicator (more than 80%).

“Moreover, incidences of deprivation in slums of Kolkata and Delhi's JJ clusters are close to each other and reasonably high for sanitation indicator (more than 80%)”

May combine two claims.

Heads of a third of the slum households in Kolkata and 45% of slum households in Mumbai have reported their state of origin as the native state.

“Heads of a third of the slum households in Kolkata and a 45% of slum households in Mumbai have reported their state of origin as the native state.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The surveyed households are representative of the slum populations in Kolkata, Mumbai, and Delhi.

May combine two claims.

In Delhi RR colonies, 17% constructions are 20-30 years old, 21.3% constructions are 10-20 years old and 25.9% constructions are as new as being built within the last 10 years.

“17% constructions are 20-30 years old, 21.3% constructions are 10-20 years old and 25.9% constructions are as new as being built within the last 10 years.”

May combine two claims.

In Kolkata and Mumbai slums, 37.9% and 44% households, respectively, do not have any child and only 12% households in each of these two cities have three or more children; in Delhi, a smaller fraction of households has no children and a much higher fraction has three or more children.

“In Kolkata and Mumbai slums, 37.9% and 44% households, respectively, do not have any child and only 12% households in each of these two cities have three or more children. In Delhi, however, smaller fraction of households has no children and much higher fraction of households has three or more children.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The surveyed households are representative of the slum populations in Kolkata, Mumbai, and Delhi.

May combine two claims.

Outdoor cooking is not so common in other two cities, but cooking inside the sleeping rooms without chimneys takes place in many households of Delhi's JJCs (52%), Mumbai slums (39%) and Delhi RR colonies (23.9%).

“Outdoor cooking is not so common in other two cities, but cooking inside the sleeping rooms without chimneys takes place in many households of Delhi's JJCs (52%), Mumbai slums (39%) and Delhi RR colonies (23.9%).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: In urban setting, cooking outside of house or cooking within the same room used for sleeping also reflects the poorer socio-economic status of the household.

May combine two claims.

The share of migration has slowed down at the dawn of the new millennium in all cities, and the majority of the migration took place between 1970 and 2000; of the migrated households, 65-80% household heads migrated to the slums of cities in this period of 30 years.

“Consistently, the share of migration has slowed down at the dawn of the new millennium in all cities. The majority of the migration took place between 1970 and 2000. Of the migrated households, 65-80% household heads migrated to the slums of cities in this period of 30 years.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The surveyed households are representative of the slum populations in Kolkata, Mumbai, and Delhi.

May combine two claims.

In Delhi JJ clusters, 83% of constructions are either semi-pucca or kutcha, but the same proportions of constructions are pucca in RR colonies.

“In JJ clusters, 83% of constructions are either semi-pucca or kutcha, but the same proportions of constructions are pucca in RR colonies.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Slums or squatters are often characterized by poorer quality housing structures compared to the rest of the city.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Many Pagri tenants in Mumbai also claimed to be the owner of the houses.

“Many Pagri tenants in Mumbai also claimed to be the owner of the houses.”

May combine two claims.

In Kolkata, for more than a fifth (22.3%) of all households cooking takes place outside of house and for 44.6% of households cooking takes place inside sleeping room without chimneys and exhaust fans.

“In Kolkata, for more than a fifth (22.3%) of all households cooking takes place outside of house and for 44.6% of households cooking takes place inside sleeping room without chimneys and exhaust fans.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: In urban setting, cooking outside of house or cooking within the same room used for sleeping also reflects the poorer socio-economic status of the household.

May combine two claims.

In Mumbai, nearly half of the constructions are pucca; whereas in Kolkata, only a quarter of all slum constructions are pucca.

“In Mumbai, nearly half of the constructions are pucca; whereas in Kolkata, only a quarter of all slum constructions are pucca.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Slums or squatters are often characterized by poorer quality housing structures compared to the rest of the city.

May combine two claims.

Thika tenancy is more prevalent in Kolkata bastis, whereas pagri system is more common in Mumbai Chawls and older bastis.

“Thika tenancy is more prevalent in Kolkata bastis, whereas pagri system is more common in Mumbai Chawls and older bastis.”

May combine two claims.

The density of cell phone ownerships varies across cities. While in Mumbai there are 1.5 adult persons per cell phone, there are 2.3 adult members per cell phone in Delhi's JJ cluster.

“the density of cell phone ownerships varies across cities. While in Mumbai there are 1.5 adult persons per cell phone, there are 2.3 adult members per cell phone in Delhi's JJ cluster.”

May combine two claims.

Most constructions (nearly 85%) in JJ clusters are developments not older than 30 years and 19.6% of the constructions were developed within the past ten years.

“Most constructions (nearly 85%) in JJ clusters are developments not older than 30 years and 19.6% of the constructions were developed within the past ten years.”

May combine two claims.

The average years of schooling is highest in Mumbai and lowest in Delhi's JJ clusters.

“The highest average years of schooling is observed in Mumbai, and the lowest in Delhi's JJ clusters.”

May combine two claims.

In the surveys, slums in Kolkata, Mumbai and Delhi's RR colonies have similar or slightly better overall sex ratios (935 in Delhi RR, 951 in Mumbai and 945 in Kolkata), but the sex ratio in Delhi's JJ colonies is much lower at 888.

“In our surveys, we find that slums in Kolkata, Mumbai and Delhi's RR colonies have similar or slightly better overall sex ratios (935 in Delhi RR, 951 in Mumbai and 945 in Kolkata). However, the sex ratio in Delhi's JJ colonies is much lower at 888.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The surveyed households are representative of the slum populations in Kolkata, Mumbai, and Delhi.

May combine two claims.

Per capita expenditure is highest in Mumbai, followed by Delhi RR colonies, Delhi JJ clusters, and then Kolkata.

“the per capita expenditure is highest in Mumbai, followed by Delhi RR colonies, Delhi JJ clusters and then Kolkata”

May combine two claims.

There is statistically significant lower enrolment of girls in private schools than boys in the slums of Mumbai and Delhi; this difference is highest among Delhi RR residents.

“We find statistically significant lower enrolment of girls in private schools than the boys in the slums of Mumbai and Delhi; strikingly, this difference is highest among the Delhi RR residents”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Slum dwellers in the age group of 6-21 years are potential students.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The age of six years is the start of the first grade, and the age of 21 is when a student should be completing fifteen years of education or obtaining an undergraduate degree.

May combine two claims.

In Mumbai and Delhi, the time of migration matters: those who migrated earlier tended to be less materially deprived than those who migrated in later phases, and these differences are statistically significant.

“In Mumbai and Delhi, we observe that the time of migration matters. Those who migrated earlier in the city tended to be less materially deprived than those who migrated in later phases. These differences in material-deprivation scores are statistically significant.”

May combine two claims.

A wide difference across gender is consistently observed in all three cities, where not only LFPRs among females are much lower but also their average monthly earning.

“Unfortunately, a wide difference across gender is consistently observed in all three cities, where not only LFPRs among females are much lower but also their average monthly earning”

May combine two claims.

Nearly 80% of students in Delhi slums who are attending government schools receive mid-day meals, whereas the proportion of such students ranges between 64-66% in slums of Kolkata and Delhi.

“Nearly 80% students in Delhi slums who are attending government schools receive mid-day meals; whereas the proportion of such students ranges between 64-66% in slums of Kolkata and Delhi”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Slum dwellers in the age group of 6-21 years are potential students.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The age of six years is the start of the first grade, and the age of 21 is when a student should be completing fifteen years of education or obtaining an undergraduate degree.

May combine two claims.

In Kolkata, more than 58% of grocery expenditure is spent on cereals, compared with 45% in Delhi and 51% in Mumbai.

“in Kolkata more than 58% of the grocery expenditure is spent on cereals; whereas only 45% and 51% of the same is spent on cereals in Delhi and Mumbai”

May combine two claims.

Between 6.6-6.8% of per capita expenditure in slums of Mumbai and Delhi is spent on cooking fuel, while the share is higher for Kolkata (8.1%).

“Looking at the fourth item - cooking fuel, we find that between 6.6-6.8% of the per capita expenditure in slums of Mumbai and Delhi are spent on this item. The share is higher for Kolkata (8.1%).”

May combine two claims.

The share of rent to overall per capita expenditure in Mumbai is 8.4%, while in Delhi and Kolkata it ranges between 2.1 and 4.3%.

“The share of rent to the overall per capita expenditure in Mumbai is 8.4%, however the share of rent ranges between 2.1 and 4.3% only in Delhi and Kolkata”

May combine two claims.

In Kolkata, those who migrated between 1971-90 face higher rates of deprivation compared to the other two groups (before 1970 and after 1990), who are exactly on equal footing.

“Unfortunately, those who migrated between 1971-90 are facing higher rate of deprivations compared to the other two groups who are exactly on equal footing.”

May combine two claims.

Most of the slum dwellers are employed in the informal sectors and merely earn paltry compensation.

“Incidentally, we find that most of the slum dwellers are employed in the informal sectors and merely earn paltry compensation”

May combine two claims.

Although per-capita expenditure and per-capita income are not quite different in slums of Kolkata and Delhi, the tendency to attend government schools is much higher in Delhi.

“Quite interestingly, although the level of per-capita expenditure and per-capita income are not quite different in slums of Kolkata and in Delhi, the tendency to attend government schools are much higher in Delhi”

May combine two claims.

In Mumbai slums, the share of expenditure spent on Kerosene is only one-fifth of per capita fuel expenditure, whereas in Delhi more than 90% of cooking fuel expenditure is spent on LPG.

“In Mumbai slums, the share of expenditure spent on Kerosene is only one-fifth of the per capita expenditure on fuel; whereas in Delhi more than 90% of the expenditure on cooking fuel is spent on LPG.”

May combine two claims.

Rent and electricity bills together account for 19.5% of per capita expenditure in slums of Mumbai and RR colonies, 12.1% in Kolkata, and 13.4% in JJ colonies of Delhi.

“The rent and electricity bills together, both in the slums of Mumbai and RR colonies, account for 19.5% of the per capita expenditure. The corresponding shares in Kolkata and JJ colonies of Delhi are 12.1% and 13.4%, respectively.”

May combine two claims.

In Delhi, a higher proportion of students are enrolled in government school; in JJ clusters, more than 80% attend government school and less than 15% attend private schools.

“In Delhi but a higher proportion of students are enrolled in government school. In JJ clusters, more than 80% of the students attend government school and less than 15% of the students attend private schools”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Slum dwellers in the age group of 6-21 years are potential students.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The age of six years is the start of the first grade, and the age of 21 is when a student should be completing fifteen years of education or obtaining an undergraduate degree.

May combine two claims.

In Delhi's JJ clusters, 53.9% of males continue to participate in the labour market, whereas in Kolkata, Mumbai and Delhi's RR colonies, a substantially lower percentage of males (23-32%) remain active.

“In Delhi's JJ clusters, 53.9% of males continue to participate in the labour market, whereas in Kolkata, Mumbai and Delhi's RR colonies, a substantially lower percentage of males (23-32%) remain active.”

May combine two claims.

In Delhi, inequality in per capita income appears slightly higher in RR colonies, whereas inequality in per capita expenditure appears slightly higher in JJ clusters.

“If we divide the slums in Delhi into JJ clusters and RR colonies, then inequality in per capita income appears to be slightly higher in RR colonies, whereas inequality in per capita expenditure appears to be slightly higher in JJ clusters.”

May combine two claims.

In Delhi slums, 17-20% of LPG is purchased from private sources and the price differential between public and private sources is very large compared to Mumbai and Kolkata.

“Another notable aspect within Delhi slums is that 17-20% of LPG is purchased from private sources and the price differential between public and private sources is very large, compared to Mumbai and Kolkata.”

May combine two claims.

In Delhi JJ, female dropout rate is very high even before grade VIII and majority of them are not allowed to go for work outside the home.

“In Delhi JJ however situation is different, female dropout rate is very high even before grade VIII and at the same time majority of them are not allowed to go for work outside the home.”

May combine two claims.

More than 5% of per capita expenditure is spent on outward remittances in Mumbai and JJ clusters, whereas the corresponding figure is 3.6% in Kolkata.

“More than 5% of the per capita expenditure is spent on outward remittances in Mumbai and JJ clusters; whereas the corresponding figure is 3.6% in Kolkata.”

May combine two claims.

In Kolkata, a higher proportion of people live in rented accommodation (almost 62%) compared to Delhi JJ and RR (13% to 16%), but rent in Kolkata is much lower (especially for Thika Tenants, as low as Rs. 20 per month) than in Delhi JJ and RR (at least Rs. 3000 per month).

“In Kolkata although a higher proportion of people are living in rented accommodation (almost 62%) vis-à-vis Delhi JJ and RR (13% to 16%) (see, Table 4), the rent in Kolakata is much lower (especially for Thika Tenants, as low as Rs. 20 per month) than that of in Delhi JJ and RR (at least Rs. 3000 per month).”

May combine two claims.

From our survey, the enrolment rate among the 6-21 years age group is around 83% in Mumbai and in Delhi RR colonies, whereas the same in Kolkata and in Delhi JJ clusters is around 75-76%.

“From our survey, we find that the enrolment rate among 6-21 years age group is around 83% in Mumbai and in Delhi RR colonies; whereas the same in Kolkata and in Delhi JJ clusters is around 75-76%”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Slum dwellers in the age group of 6-21 years are potential students.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The age of six years is the start of the first grade, and the age of 21 is when a student should be completing fifteen years of education or obtaining an undergraduate degree.

May combine two claims.

Adult literacy rate (age 15+) is highest, nearly 90%, in slums of Mumbai, 82-84% in slums of Kolkata and in RR colonies of Delhi.

“The adult literacy rate (for age group 15 years or more) is highest (nearly 90%) in slums of Mumbai, 82-84% in slums of Kolkata and in RR colonies of Delhi”

May combine two claims.

Food expenditure is higher in Mumbai than in Kolkata, with Delhi JJ very close to Kolkata.

“Although the food expenditure is higher in Mumbai than in Kolkata (Delhi JJ is very close to Kolkata)”

May combine two claims.

The proportion of pure vegetarian households is 3.5% in Kolkata slums, 17.8% in Mumbai slums, and 23.9% in Delhi slums (19.4% in JJ clusters and 29.4% in RR colonies).

“While the proportion of pure vegetarian households is 3.5% in Kolkata slums, the proportions of the same are 17.8% in Mumbai slums and 23.9% in Delhi slums (19.4% in JJ clusters and 29.4% in RR colonies)”

May combine two claims.

The median reported distance to schools is very similar across cities, ranging between 10-15 minutes, with no striking difference across cities.

“The median of reported distances to schools are very similar across cities. The median ranges between 10-15 minutes. We do not find any striking difference across cities”

May combine two claims.

The Gini coefficients of per capita income in all three cities lie between 33.4 and 36.3, and the Gini coefficients of per capita expenditure lie between 22.5 and 24.6.

“The Gini coefficients of per capita income in all three cities lie between 33.4 and 36.3; whereas the Gini coefficients of per capita expenditure lie between 22.5 and 24.6.”

May combine two claims.

40% of Kerosene is purchased from private sources at a much higher price (Rs. 41 per litre).

“However, we notice that 40% of the Kerosene is purchased from the private sources at a much higher price (Rs. 41 per litre).”

May combine two claims.

The incidence of deprivation in cooking arrangement differs in nature between Kolkata and Delhi JJ: in Kolkata due to more use of Kerosene and biomass fuel (97%), whereas in Delhi more people cook inside the sleeping room.

“in Kolkata because of more incidence of use of Kerosene and biomass fuel (97%), whereas in Delhi more people are cooking inside the sleeping room.”

May combine two claims.

The LFPRs among adult males in 15-64 age-groups in all cities are more than 70%, but the same among females are less than 25%.

“The LFPRs among adult males in 15-64 age-groups in all cities are more than 70% but the same among females are less than 25%”

May combine two claims.

In Kolkata, nearly 55.4% of students attend private schools and 39.7% attend government schools.

“In Kolkata, nearly, 55.4% of the students attend private schools and 39.7% attend government school”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Slum dwellers in the age group of 6-21 years are potential students.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The age of six years is the start of the first grade, and the age of 21 is when a student should be completing fifteen years of education or obtaining an undergraduate degree.

May combine two claims.

The corresponding average years of education is 8 years in Delhi RR colonies and 6.5-6.6 years in Kolkata and JJ clusters of Delhi.

“The corresponding level is 8 years in Delhi RR colonies and 6.5-6.6 years in Kolkata and JJ clusters of Delhi”

May combine two claims.

The enrolment rate in elementary education (12-14 years age-group) is still high, but the enrolment rate falls drastically for higher age groups.

“Although the enrolment rate in elementary education (12-14 years age-group) is still high, the enrolment rate falls drastically for the higher age groups”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The age of six years is the start of the first grade, and the age of 21 is when a student should be completing fifteen years of education or obtaining an undergraduate degree.

May combine two claims.

Levels of inequality are very similar across slums in all three cities although the sizes of distributions are quite different.

“Looking at the inequality measures, we find the levels of inequality to be very similar across slums in all three cities although the sizes are quite different.”

May combine two claims.

The gender difference in enrolment is small and statistically significant in Mumbai, but no statistically significant differences are found in other slums.

“Although the gender difference is small and statistically significant in Mumbai, we do not find any statistically significant differences in other slums”

May combine two claims.

Per capita expenditure on rent and electricity bills in Kolkata slums is less than half of that in Mumbai, and in Delhi's JJ clusters it is less than two-thirds of that in Delhi's RR colonies.

“What we notice is that the per capita expenditure on rent and electricity bills in Kolkata slums is less than half of the same in Mumbai and the expenditure on these two items in Delhi's JJ clusters is less than two-third of the same in Delhi's RR colonies.”

May combine two claims.

Although literacy rates among the 15-24 age group in slums are more than 90%, in JJ clusters still 9% of younger adult slum dwellers cannot read, write or sign.

“Although literacy rates among this age group in slums are more than 90%, in JJ clusters still 9% of younger adult slum dwellers cannot read, write or sign”

May combine two claims.

Per capita expenditure on non-vegetable items is much higher in Kolkata slums, followed by Mumbai slums, and in Delhi slums it is less than half of that in Kolkata.

“The per capita expenditure on non-vegetable items is much higher in Kolkata slums followed by Mumbai slums, and in Delhi slums the per capita expenditure on non-vegetable items is less than half of that in Kolkata”

May combine two claims.

Private schools are preferred for boys, while girls are more likely to join government schools.

“Typically, private (most often English Medium and costly) schools are preferred for the boys, while the girls are more likely to join government (vernacular language and quasi-free) schools”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Slum dwellers in the age group of 6-21 years are potential students.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The age of six years is the start of the first grade, and the age of 21 is when a student should be completing fifteen years of education or obtaining an undergraduate degree.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The unit price of Kerosene available through PDS is cheaper (Rs. 15 per litre), as evident from Table 11.

“One may argue that the unit price of Kerosene available through PDS (Rs. 15 per litre) is cheaper, which is evident from Table 11.”

May combine two claims.

Although the gender difference in years of schooling is statistically significant among the youngest group of adults in RR colonies, the difference is lowest among the three age groups.

“Although the gender difference in years of schooling is statistically significant among the youngest group of adults in RR colonies, the difference is lowest among the three age groups”

May combine two claims.

Among the 19-21 age-group, the enrolment rate in colleges is just above 50% in Mumbai and in RR colonies of Delhi and even below 40% in slums of Kolkata and Delhi's JJ clusters.

“Among the 19-21 age-group, the enrolment rate in colleges is just above 50% in Mumbai and in RR colonies of Delhi and even below 40% in slums of Kolkata and Delhi's JJ clusters”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The age of six years is the start of the first grade, and the age of 21 is when a student should be completing fifteen years of education or obtaining an undergraduate degree.

May combine two claims.

Overall LFPRs and gender-wise differences in LFPRs are similar across slums and across different age groups.

“Although the overall LFPRs and gender-wise differences in LFPRs are similar across slums and across different age groups, there are two particular differences that are worth noting.”

May combine two claims.

Enrolment rate among the 6-11 years age group is very high and ranges between 95-97% in all cities, without any statistically significant difference across gender.

“Due to the government policy of universal primary education, the enrolment rate among 6-11 years age group is very high and ranges between 95-97% in all cities, without any statistically significant difference across gender”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The age of six years is the start of the first grade, and the age of 21 is when a student should be completing fifteen years of education or obtaining an undergraduate degree.

May combine two claims.

Of per capita expenditure on cooking fuel in Kolkata, only a third is spent on LPG and nearly 58% is spent on Kerosene.

“Of the per capita expenditure on cooking fuel in Kolkata, only a third is spent on liquid petroleum gas (LPG) and nearly 58% is spent on Kerosene.”

May combine two claims.

In panel III of Table 8, there is a pecking order of higher mean deprivation score for more recent migrant households in Mumbai and Delhi, while Kolkata is again an aberration.

“In panel III of Table 8, we again find a pecking order of higher mean deprivation score for the more recent migrant households in Mumbai and Delhi. Kolkata again is an aberration to this trend.”

May combine two claims.

In Mumbai, 56.8% of students in the 6-14 age-group are enrolled in private schools, whereas only 38.1% are enrolled in government schools.

“In Mumbai, 56.8% of the students in the 6-14 age-group are enrolled in private schools; whereas only 38.1% of the students in the same age group are enrolled in government schools”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Slum dwellers in the age group of 6-21 years are potential students.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The age of six years is the start of the first grade, and the age of 21 is when a student should be completing fifteen years of education or obtaining an undergraduate degree.

May combine two claims.

In Kolkata 77.4%, in Mumbai 62.3%, in Delhi JJ clusters 89.5% and in Delhi RR 76% of slum dwellers have informal jobs.

“In Kolkata 77.4%, in Mumbai 62.3%, in Delhi JJ clusters 89.5% and in Delhi RR 76% of slum dwellers have informal jobs.”

The quote only partly states this claim.

90% of children in the age group of 6-14 years are enrolled in schools.

“The average years of schooling completed by slum dwellers in all three cities do not surpass nine years, but 90% of children in the age group of 6-14 years are enrolled in schools as well as more than 90% of the adults in the age group of 15-25 years are literate.”

May combine two claims.

Nearly 80% of the students in the same age group in public schools receive mid-day meal in Delhi, but the corresponding proportion is between only 64-66% in both Kolkata and Mumbai.

“Relatedly, nearly 80% of the students in the same age group in public schools receive mid-day meal in Delhi, but the corresponding proportion is between only 64-66% in both Kolkata and Mumbai.”

May combine two claims.

In squatters of Delhi less than half of the adult women are illiterate in the age group of 25-50 years and more than 80% are illiterate in the age group of 50 years or more.

“In squatters of Delhi less than half of the adult women are illiterate in the age group of 25-50 years and more than 80% are illiterate in the age group of 50 years or more.”

May combine two claims.

Although the slums and the constructions within them are much older in Kolkata, yet much higher proportion of houses are built with unimproved floor, wall or roof materials.

“Although the slums and the constructions within them are much older in Kolkata, yet much higher proportion of houses are built with unimproved floor, wall or roof materials, which directly affects the slum dwellers' living conditions.”

May combine two claims.

Around 31% of Mumbai slum dwellers and 47% of Delhi JJ cluster slum dwellers travel more than five minutes to access the facilities.

“Close to 70% of the slum dwellers of all three cities depend heavily on publicly provided sanitation facilities in their neighbourhood, but around 31% of Mumbai slum dwellers and 47% of Delhi JJ cluster slum dwellers travel more than five minutes to access the facilities.”

May combine two claims.

In Delhi, only a quarter of the household heads were born in the city and merely 20% of all constructions in slums are older than 30 years.

“In Delhi, on the other hand, only a quarter of the household heads were born in the city and merely 20% of all constructions in slums are older than 30 years.”

May combine two claims.

Although the overall per capita expenditure is statistically significantly higher in Delhi slums, there is no statistically significant difference in per capita food expenditures.

“For example, although the overall per capita expenditure is statistically significantly higher in Delhi slums, there is no statistically significant difference in per capita food expenditures.”

May combine two claims.

The monthly average nominal income is highest in slums of Mumbai followed by the slums in Delhi and then Kolkata.

“The monthly average nominal income is thus highest in slums of Mumbai followed by the slums in Delhi and then Kolkata.”

May combine two claims.

Although the school enrolment rate among the 6-14 years age group is more than 90% in all cities, majority of the students in Delhi slums appear to attend public school but majority of the students in Mumbai appear to attend private schools.

“Among children, although the school enrolment rate among the 6-14 years age group is more than 90% in all cities, majority of the students in Delhi slums appear to attend public school but majority of the students in Mumbai appear to attend private schools.”

May combine two claims.

Mumbai fare much better in providing larger frequency of personal as well as non-personal facilities that reduces the time to fetch water.

“Mumbai fare much better in providing larger frequency of personal as well as non-personal facilities that reduces the time to fetch water.”

May combine two claims.

There are crucial differences across cities in terms of personal versus non-personal access, time taken to fetch water from the source, the duration of water availability per day.

“However, there are crucial differences across cities in terms of personal versus non-personal access, time taken to fetch water from the source, the duration of water availability per day.”

May combine two claims.

87% of all households in Mumbai and more than 94% of households in Delhi have adopted liquid petroleum gas (LPG) as cooking fuel; whereas in Kolkata slums only 47% of households use LPG.

“We have found that 87% of all households in Mumbai and more than 94% of households in Delhi have adopted liquid petroleum gas (LPG) as cooking fuel; whereas in Kolkata slums only 47% of households use LPG.”

May combine two claims.

Around 70 percent of all households in Mumbai and Delhi's RR colonies responded that they were satisfied with living conditions; whereas around half of all households in Kolkata and Delhi's JJ clusters responded that they were either not satisfied or very dissatisfied with their living conditions.

“Around 70 percent of all households in Mumbai and Delhi's RR colonies responded that they were satisfied with living conditions; whereas around half of all households in Kolkata and Delhi's JJ clusters responded that they were either not satisfied or very dissatisfied with their living conditions.”

May combine two claims.

The adult literacy rate within Mumbai slums is nearly 90%, whereas the adult literacy rate in squatters of Delhi is only 70%.

“The adult literacy rate within Mumbai slums is nearly 90%, whereas the adult literacy rate in squatters of Delhi is only 70%.”

May combine two claims.

In Kolkata, more than 60% of household heads in slums were born in the city and nearly 70% of the constructions are older than 30 years.

“In Kolkata, more than 60% of household heads in slums were born in the city and nearly 70% of the constructions are older than 30 years.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Residents in Mumbai slums have bore the cost of a LPG connection themselves; whereas the Delhi government has paid a subsidy (for an LPG cylinder and stove) to all the PDS cardholders to convert them from being Kerosene users to LPG users.

“Residents in Mumbai slums have bore the cost of a LPG connection themselves; whereas the Delhi government has paid a subsidy (for an LPG cylinder and stove) to all the PDS cardholders to convert them from being Kerosene users to LPG users.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The distance between the three cities allows the study to capture crucial geographical, cultural and preference-based differences.

“each city being 9001250 miles away from each other, allows us to capture crucial geographical, cultural and preferencebased differences.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The three cities are 900-1250 miles away from each other.

May combine two claims.

Mumbai, Delhi, and Kolkata have the largest share of slum population in India, with Mumbai largest, followed by Delhi, then Kolkata.

“First, these three cities have the largest share of slum population in India: Mumbai being the largest followed by Delhi and then Kolkata.”

• cites [9] A Kundu, 2007, Migration, Employment Status and Poverty: An Analysis across Urban Centres, Economic and Political WeeklyNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The trend in duration of construction is quite consistent with the migration pattern observed in Table 2 earlier.

“The trend is quite consistent with the migration pattern observed in the Table 2 earlier.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Legally notified slums are those designated as slums under the Slum Areas Improvement and Clearance Act (1956).

“Legally notified slums are those that have been designated as slums under the Slum Areas Improvement and Clearance Act (1956).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Ward C in Mumbai did not have any slum dweller.

“Samples were collected from 23 wards because one ward (Ward C) did not have any slum dweller.”

May combine two claims.

Having a legally recognised foothold in the city empowers and enables slum dwellers to have formal access to basic services and brings some stability in their life.

“Having a legally recognised foothold (in the form of a registered slums or rehabilitated settlements vis-à-vis squatters) in the city empowers and enables the slum dwellers to have a formal access to basic services. This certainly brings some stability in their life”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Priya (1993) notes that DIT had done next to nothing towards increasing housing for the previous poor inhabitants or for the new immigrants, and if anything it added to the problem by demolishing some housing available to the poor under slum clearance schemes without adequate rehousing.

“Priya (1993) notes ' DIT had done next to nothing towards increasing housing for the previous poor inhabitants or for the new immigrants. If anything it had only added to the problem by demolishing some of the housing available to the poor under slum clearance schemes without adequate rehousing so that the evicted added to the congestion of surrounding areas.”

• cites Priya (1993)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

NFHS-3 (2005-06) survey found that just 5% of poor families in Delhi had unshared toilet facilities, and 19% of slum residents had no toilet facility.

“NFHS-3 (2005-06) survey found that just 5% of poor families in Delhi had unshared toilet facilities, and 19% of slum residents had no toilet facility.”

• cites NFHS-3 (2005-06)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Delhi RR colony dwellers are the least deprived among all slum dwellers because of their ownership status of the plot of land and relatively better access to civic facilities.

“The dwellers of Delhi RR colonies are the least deprived ones amongst all, because of their ownership status of the plot of land and relatively better access to the civic facilities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In the first stage, the municipal corporation areas of each city were stratified according to the largest possible administrative divisions available through official documents.

“In the first stage, the municipal corporation areas of each of the three cities were stratified according to the largest possible administrative divisions that are available through official documents.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

India is known to have made notoriously slow progress in improving access to sanitation - especially in rural areas, which is also evident from the NFHS 2005/06 report.

“India is known to have made notoriously slow progress in improving access to sanitation - especially in rural areas, which is also evident from the NFHS 2005/06 report.”

• cites NFHS 2005/06Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Constructing a pucca structure in these slums draws attention of civic bodies or policemen, which results in graft payments by the dwellers.

“constructing a pucca structure in these slums draws attention of civic bodies or policemen, which results in graft payments by the dwellers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Tenure insecurity is an important aspect of slum dwellers and their marginalisation, but it is not considered an important parameter by the Slum Act of 1956 or by Census and NSSO authorities while declaring an area as slum.

“According to UN-HABITAT (2012, 2014) tenure insecurity is an important aspect of slum dwellers and their marginalisation, but this is not considered as an important parameter by the Slum Act of 1956 or by the authorities of Census and NSSO while declaring any area as slum.”

• cites UN-HABITAT, 2012, 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The survey questionnaire was designed on the basic framework of the latest round of NSSO household survey and slum particulars, and customized to incorporate more variables learned from the pilot survey.

“We designed our survey questionnaire on the basic framework of the latest round of NSSO household survey and slum particulars, and customized it further to incorporate more variables so as to capture the intrinsic slum characteristics that we learned from our pilot survey.”

May combine two claims.

Tiny allotted plot size (25 sq.yds. or less) coupled with no provision of good sewerage system do not allow residents to construct their own sanitation facilities and force them to use paid public toilets (e.g. Bawana Relocation Colony, Delhi).

“Tiny allotted plot size (25 sq.yds. or less) coupled with no provision of good sewerage system do not allow residents to construct their own sanitation facilities and force them to use paid public toilets (e.g. Bawana Relocation Colony, Delhi).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Mumbai's industrial growth attracted migrants and contributed to the rapid growth of Bombay, and consequently the numbers of slums and their population have increased a great deal.

“With this industrial growth, job opportunities remained buoyant and that attracted more migrants and contributed to the rapid growth of Bombay.”

• Also stated in: § Since the turn of 20 th Century: · p. 17 · plain

  “consequently the numbers of slums and their population have increased a great deal.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Proposed sample sizes were 800 households from Kolkata slums, 1,250 from Delhi slums, and 1,200 from Mumbai slums.

“Our proposed sample sizes were 800 households from the slums of Kolkata, 1,250 samples from the slums of Delhi; and 1,200 samples from the slums of Mumbai.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Basti settlements are tenements created by local landlords or their agents to provide shelters to migrant industrial workers on the basis of a long-term lease agreement (Thika or Pagri).

“The Basti (a local term used in all three cities) settlements are the tenements created by local landlords or their agents to provide shelters to migrant industrial workers on the basis of a (long term) lease agreement (called Thika or Pagri). 21”

• cites [21] M Ravallion, 2002, On the urbanization of poverty, Journal of Development Economics sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Slums in Kolkata and Mumbai continued to grow in the post-independence era as a response to steady flow of migration and population growth far beyond existing housing capacity.

“And the slums continue to grow, even in the post independence era, as a response to steady flow of migration and growth of population far beyond the existing housing capacity.”

• cites [20] V Ramaswamy, 2008, Basti Redevelopment in KolkataNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In the post-independence era, the population of Delhi increased many folds due to refugee immigrants from West Pakistan and large-scale migration from rural areas due to employment opportunities and regional economic imbalances, resulting in a rapid increase in jhuggi-jhopris.

“In the post-independence era, the population of Delhi increased many folds for two reasons. First, immediately after the independence Delhi registered a deluge of refugee immigrants from West Pakistan. Secondly, the employment opportunities (formal and informal), 'city development' activity and the increasing need for service and labour in the better-off urban sections had led to continuing large”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

According to the Census Authority of India, the overall sex ratio in slums has improved from 887 in 2001 to 928 in 2011.

“According to the Census Authority of India, the overall sex ratio in slums has improved from 887 in 2001 to 928 in 2011.”

• cites Census Authority of IndiaNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In Kolkata, stratification was at the borough level; in Mumbai at the ward level; and in Delhi at the revenue-district level.

“In case of Kolkata, the stratification was done at the borough level, which means that each borough represents a stratum. In case of Mumbai, the stratification was conducted at the ward level and for Delhi at the revenue-district level.”

May combine two claims.

Dharavi grew haphazardly without provision for sanitation, drains, safe drinking water, roads or other basic services.

“The living quarters and small-scale factories grew haphazardly, without provision for sanitation, drains, safe drinking water, roads or other basic services (Sharma, 2000, pp. 6-8).”

• cites Sharma, 2000, pp. 6-8Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).