The DOI matches its Crossref record; 25 of the 25 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Deep Fakes: A Looming Challenge for Privacy, Democracy, and National Security
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In the citing paper
“Mirsky and Lee [19] focused on reen- actment approaches (i.e., to change a target's expres- sion, mouth, pose, gaze or body), and replacement approaches (i.e., to replace a target's face by swap or transfer methods).”
From Deep learning for deepfakes creation and detection: A survey (2022) · cites this paper as [19]
In the citing paper
“The rise of deepfakes-synthetic media generated using artificial intelligence-threatens digital content authenticity, facilitating misinformation and manipulation.”
From Comprehensive Evaluation of Deepfake Detection Models: Accuracy, Generalization, and Resilience to Adversarial Attacks (2025) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“Deepfakes have been used to create fake news, commit fraud, and even produce explicit content without consent (Chesney & Citron, 2019).”
From Deepfake forensics: a survey of digital forensic methods for multimodal deepfake identification on social media (2024) · cites this paper as Chesney & Citron, 2019
In the citing paper
“Beyond disinformation campaigns aimed directly at undermining the credibility of candidates or influencing voter sentiments on specific issues, synthetic media can also be used to intimidate, threaten or otherwise harass political figures to influence their actions and statements, or to deter political participation altogether (Chesney & Citron, 2018).”
From Deepfakes, Democracy, and the Ethics of Synthetic Media: A Synthesis of the SOLARIS Project (2026) · cites this paper as Chesney & Citron, 2018
In the citing paper
“Consequently, moderation and takedown mechanisms tend to lag behind the speed at which such content spreads, allowing politically motivated synthetic media to reach wide audiences before factcheckers can intervene (Chesney & Citron, 2018).”
From Deepfakes, Democracy, and the Ethics of Synthetic Media: A Synthesis of the SOLARIS Project (2026) · cites this paper as Chesney & Citron, 2018
In the citing paper
“This forementioned liar's dividend means that someone caught in wrongdoing can claim the incriminating video is merely synthetic (Chesney & Citron, 2018).”
From Deepfakes, Democracy, and the Ethics of Synthetic Media: A Synthesis of the SOLARIS Project (2026) · cites this paper as Chesney & Citron, 2018
In the citing paper
“With minimal technical expertise, perpetrators can now fabricate highly realistic sexual content using another person's likeness, thereby enabling a continuum of exploitative practices that includes sextortion, reputational sabotage, blackmail, and intimate partner violence (Chesney & Citron, 2018).”
From Deepfakes, Democracy, and the Ethics of Synthetic Media: A Synthesis of the SOLARIS Project (2026) · cites this paper as Chesney & Citron, 2018
In the citing paper
“Comparable to revenge porn cases, where intimate images are shared without consent, or the proliferation of deepfake pornography targeting women in public life, these manipulations inflict enduring reputational damage that cannot be easily corrected once the falsified content circulates (Chesney & Citron, 2018).”
From Deepfakes, Democracy, and the Ethics of Synthetic Media: A Synthesis of the SOLARIS Project (2026) · cites this paper as Chesney & Citron, 2018
In the citing paper
“Recent advances in technology for algorithmically applying hyper-realistic manipulations to video are simultaneously enabling new forms of interpersonal communication and posing a threat to traditional standards of evidence and trust in media1–8.”
From Human detection of political speech deepfakes across transcripts, audio, and video (2024) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“Neither literature has fully addressed insider threat applications,the manufactured insider category is offered as one such application.”
From Geopolitical competition, online radicalisation, and organisational culture as vectors of the evolving insider threat (2026) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“The category sits at the intersection of two trajectories anticipated in the academic literature: Brundage and colleagues' analysis of the malicious use of artificial intelligence [4] and Chesney and Citron's analysis of synthetic media as a vector for deception in security-relevant contexts [8].”
From Geopolitical competition, online radicalisation, and organisational culture as vectors of the evolving insider threat (2026) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“AI is a form of automation, but the term 'automation' more broadly encompasses 'the technique of making an apparatus, a process, or a system operate automatically.'”
From Artificial Intelligence and Privacy (2024) · cites this paper as [37]
Citations
Cites
The spread of true and false news online
Vosoughi, S., Roy, D., & Aral, S. (2018) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.aap9559 · Cited by 8,847
Broken Promises of Privacy: Responding to the Surprising Failure of AnonymizationPreprint
Ohm, P. (2009) · SSRN Electronic Journal · Cited by 997
(2018) · Federal Sentencing Reporter · doi:10.1525/fsr.2018.30.4-5.294 · Cited by 129
Unraveling Privacy: The Personal Prospectus and the Threat of a Full-Disclosure Future
Peppet, S. R. (2011) · bepress Legal Repository · Cited by 89
County of El Dorado v. DOT, 133 Cal. App. 4th 1376 (Cal. Ct. App. 2005).
(2006) · Gaming Law Review · doi:10.1089/glr.2006.10.304 · Cited by 87
Power Without Responsibility: Intermediaries and the First AmendmentPreprint
Tushnet, R. (2008) · SSRN Electronic Journal · Cited by 72
Holding Internet Service Providers Accountable
Lichtman, D. G., & Posner, E. A. (2006) · Supreme Court Economic Review · doi:10.1086/scer.14.3655313 · Cited by 37
The Rise and Fall of Invasive ISP SurveillancePreprint
Ohm, P. (2008) · SSRN Electronic Journal · Cited by 36
The Scope and Potential of FTC Data Protection
Hartzog, W., & Solove, D. J. (2015) · eYLS (Yale Law School) · Cited by 36
A Constitutional Right to Lie in Campaigns and Elections
Hasen, R. L. (2012) · eYLS (Yale Law School) · Cited by 19
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 45
- Id. at 1148. 62. Id. at 1149. 63. Id. at 1146. 64. Id. 65. Id. at 1149. 66. Id. at 1146
- Meyer, supra note 59 (quoting political scientist Dave Karpf)
- Nicholas Confessore, 2017, In November, Facebook disclosed to investors that it had at least twice as many fake users as it previously estimated, indicating that up to 60 million automated accounts may roam the world's largest social media platform."); see also Extremist Content and Russian Disinformation Online: Working with Tech to Find Solutions: Hearing Before the S. Judiciary Comm., 117th Cong
- M J David, 2018, The Science of Fake News: Addressing Fake News Requires a Multidisciplinary Effort, SCIENCE, 359
- E G See, 2007, Negative Emotion Enhances Memory Accuracy: Behavioral and Neuroimaging Evidence, 16 CURRENT DIRECTIONS, PSYCHOL. SCI, 213
- Citron See, at 122 (exploring limits of civil law in redressing injuries resulting from cyber stalking)
- 2005, Since When Is It Illegal to Just Mention a Trademark Online?, Mike Masnick coined the phrase "the Streisand Effect" in Techdirt in 2005. Mike Masnick
- Hate Citron, 2018, at 122 (explaining that someone can sue for copyright of their own image only if they took the photos themselves); see also Megan Farokhmanesh, Is It Legal to Swap Someone's Face Into Porn Without Consent?, VERGE
- Compare David Greene, 2018, KEG4-73L3] (noting that copyright claims may address deep fakes subject to fair use objections) with Jesse Lempel, Combatting Deep Fakes Through the Right of Publicity, We Don't Need New Laws for Faked Videos, We Already Have Them, EFF BLOG
- See Citron & Wittes, supra note 46, 405
- S Rep See, 1995, Key provisions criminalized the transmission of indecent material to minors
- Selyukh, supra note 198 (quoting Cox); see CITRON, HATE CRIMES IN CYBERSPACE, supra note 40, 170
- See Citron, Cyber Civil Rights, supra note 46, 121
- Citron & Wittes, 1997, In the landmark Reno v. ACLU decision, the Supreme Court struck down the CDA's blanket restrictions on Internet indecency under the First Amendment, 46
- Online expression was too important to be limited to what government officials think is fit for children. Id. at 875. Section 230's immunity provision, however, was left intact
- & Citron, 2003, HATE CRIMES IN CYBERSPACE, supra note 40, at 171. For some of the most insightful work on the significance of Section 230's immunity provision, see the work of Daphne Keller
- Daphne Keller, Toward a Clearer Conversation about Platform Liability, KNIGHT FIRST AMEND
- Citron, Cyber Civil Rights, supra note 46
- Jones V, 2014, Dirty World Enter. Recordings, LLC, 755 F.3d 398 (6th Cir
- S C, 2012, Dirty World, LLC
- 2007, Selyukh, supra note 198. In his view, sites that solicit unlawful materials or have a connection to unlawful activity should not enjoy Section 230 immunity. See id. 214. See Citron, Cyber Civil Rights, supra note 46, at 118; Mark A. Lemley, Rationalizing Internet Safe Harbors, Cox recently said as much: "I'm afraid
- See Danielle Citron & Quinta, 2008, 236. YouTube, for example, barred incitement in 2008. See Peter Whoriskey, YouTube Bans Videos That Incite Violence, The New Anti-Sex-Trafficking Legislation May Not End the Internet, 12
- 2019, Multiple states prescribe criminal penalties for those who engage in similar conduct, CAL. PENAL CODE �, 404
- Va, 2012, For an excellent overview of crimes of incitement in the digital age and the associated issues, see Margot E. Kaminski, 18, 2
- 2013, T]o survive constitutional review, any false campaign speech law would have to be narrow, targeted only at false speech made with actual malice, 53
- E G See, Anthony List v. Driehaus, 814 F.3d 466 (6th Cir. 2016) (striking down an Ohio election-lies law as a content-based restriction of "core political speech" that lacked sufficient tailoring); 281 Care Comm. v. Arneson, 766 F.3d, 774
- 2016, For the crucial role that the FTC has played in the development of privacy policy, see CHRIS JAY HOOFNAGLE, FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION PRIVACY LAW AND POLICY
- J Daniel, 2014, The FTC and the New Common Law of Privacy, 114 COLUM, L. REV, 583
- E G See, 2016, California Unfair Business Act, CAL. BUS. & PROF. CODE �
- 1987, allowing civil penalty of $50,000 per unlawful act); see also Steven J. Cole, State Enforcement Efforts Directed Against Unfair or Deceptive Practices, 56 ANTITRUST L, J, 125
- Louise Matsakis, 2018, The FTC is Officially Investigating Facebook's Data Practices, WIRED
- 2012, Federal Trade Commission Act, 15 U.S.C. � 45(a, 252
- Callum See, 2017, How the Federal Trade Commission Could (Maybe) Crack Down on Fake News
- Tim See, 2010, THE RISE AND FALL OF INFORMATION EMPIRES
- 2015, See Protecting and Promoting the Open Internet, 80 Fed. Reg. 19,737 (F.C.C
- 2015, Consumer Watchdog Petition for Rulemaking to Require Edge Providers to Honor 'Do Not Track' Requests, 15
- 2018, Google in 2006 obtained an exemption from disclosure obligations based on the practical argument that its online ad spaces were too small to accommodate the words. In the spring of 2018 the FEC began the process of changing this approach. See Alex Thompson, The FEC Took a Tiny Step to Regulate Online Political Ads, But Not in Time for 2018 Elections, VICE NEWS
- 2018, Attorney Announces Extradition Of Alleged Russian Hacker Responsible For Massive Network Intrusions At U.S. Financial Institutions, Brokerage Firms, A Major News Publication, And Other Companies, 264. For example, foreign nationals at times have been extradited to the United States to face criminal charges relating to hacking
- 2017, B9BW-PSAR]; see also Catherine Padhi, Emergencies Without End: A Primer on Federal States of Emergency, LAWFARE
- Exec, 2015, Order No. 13694, 80 Fed. Reg, 18
- 2016, See Issuance of Amended Executive Order 13694; Cyber-Related Sanctions Designation
- We anticipate that regulations to be promulgated will define 'cyber-enabled' activities to include any act that is primarily accomplished through or facilitated by computers or other electronic devices. For purposes of E.O. 13694, malicious cyber-enabled activities include deliberate activities accomplished through unauthorized access to a computer system, including by remote access; circumventing one or more protection measures, including by bypassing a firewall; or compromising the security of hardware or software in the supply chain. These activities are often the means through which the specific harms enumerated in the E.O. are achieved, including compromise to critical infrastructure, denial of service attacks, or massive loss of sensitive information, The Treasury Department has indicated that it will promulgate regulations defining "cyberenabled activities
- 2018, For an insightful discussion of the Carpenter decision, see Paul Ohm, The Many Revolutions of Carpenter, 32 HARV, J. L. & TECH, 357
- The Carpenter decision follows logically from the opinions articulated in United States v
- 2012, Though the third-party doctrine was not actually modified in United States v. Jones, five justices in that case expressed doubt about the wisdom of simply applying the third-party doctrine unaltered to circumstances involving novel, 62, 89
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Celeb-DF: A Large-Scale Challenging Dataset for DeepFake Forensics
Li, Y., Yang, X., Sun, P., Qi, H., & Lyu, S. (2020) · 2020 IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) · doi:10.1109/cvpr42600.2020.00327 · Cited by 1,846
“Since faces are intrinsically associated with identity, well-crafted DeepFakes can create illusions of a person’s presence and activities that do not occur in reality, which can lead to serious political, social, finan-cial, and legal consequences [11].”
BackgroundExposing Deep Fakes Using Inconsistent Head Poses
Yang, X., Li, Y., & Lyu, S. (2019) · ICASSP 2019 - 2019 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP) · doi:10.1109/icassp.2019.8683164 · Cited by 1,196
“Together with other forms of misinformation shared through the digital social network, Deep Fakes created digital impersonations have become a serious problem with negative social impacts [8].”
BackgroundThe Creation and Detection of Deepfakes: A Survey
Mirsky, Y., & Lee, W. (2022) · ACM Computing Surveys · doi:10.1145/3425780 · Cited by 863
“Although human image editing and synthesis are active research topics, reenactment and replacement deepfakes are the greatest concern because they give an aacker control over one’s identity[12, 28, 66].”
BackgroundThe Creation and Detection of Deepfakes: A Survey
Mirsky, Y., & Lee, W. (2020) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2004.11138 · Cited by 863
Synthetic data in machine learning for medicine and healthcare
Chen, R. J., Lu, M. Y., Chen, T. Y., Williamson, D. F. K., & Mahmood, F. (2021) · Nature Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1038/s41551-021-00751-8 · Cited by 728
Metadata
- Authors
- Chesney, R., & Citron, D. K.
- Affiliations
- The University of Texas at Austin (US)
- University of Virginia (US)
- Corresponding author
- Chesney, Robert
- Venue
- SSRN Electronic Journal
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2018
- ISSN
- 1556-5068 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2883289607
- Semantic Scholar
- c20119f9772907a7dc74cf59deae610af885f3ac
- Cited by
- 880
- References
- 25
- Citations by year
- 2026: 159 · 2025: 168 · 2024: 139 · 2023: 140 · 2022: 95 · 2021: 73 · 2020: 62 · 2019: 44
- Type
- posted content
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Locations
- SSRN Electronic Journal (publishedVersion)
- eYLS (Yale Law School) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
- Social Sciences › Law › Digitalization, Law, and Regulation
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Ethics and Social Impacts of AI
- Keywords
- deepfakes, synthetic media, privacy, democracy, national security, disinformation, truth decay, cognitive biases, civil liability, criminal sanctions, regulation, authentication, economic sanctions, covert operations, law and policy
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