Race and Wrongful Convictions in the United States 2022

May combine two claims.

Exonerations of innocent murder defendants took longer if the defendant was black (14.2 years on average) than if white (11.2 years); death-row exonerations averaged 16 years for black defendants and 12 years for whites.

“Exonerations of innocent murder defendants take longer if the defendant is black, 14.2 years on average, than if he is white, 11.2 years.For death row exonerations in the Registry the average delays and the difference by race are larger, 16 years for black defendants and 12 years for whites.18”

May combine two claims.

On average, black murder exonerees spent three years longer in prison before release than white murder exonerees; those sentenced to death spent four years longer.

“on average black murder exonerees spent three years longer in prison before release than white murder exonerees, and those sentenced to death spent four years longer.”

May combine two claims.

Concealing exculpatory evidence was primarily prosecutorial and showed little racial difference (53% black vs 49% white); witness tampering, almost exclusively by police, occurred in 21% of white-defendant murder exonerations vs 39% of black-defendant cases.

“Concealing exculpatory evidence, the most common type, is primarily a form of prosecutorial misconduct; there is relatively little difference in its frequency by race: 53% for black murder exonerees and 49% for whites.On the other hand, witness tampering is committed almost exclusively by police officers.It occurred in 21% of murder exonerations with white defendants but in 39% of those with black”

May combine two claims.

Only about 15% of murders by African Americans had white victims, but 31% of innocent African-American murder exonerees were convicted of killing white people.

“Only about 15% of murders by African Americans have white victims, but 31% of innocent African-American murder exonerees were convicted of killing white people.”

May combine two claims.

The proportion of murder exonerees of all races convicted of killing white victims was 52% of cases with known victim race (350/670), higher than the 42% of murder victims who were white.

“The proportion of murder exonerees of all races who were convicted of killing white victims is somewhat higher, 52% of the cases in which we know the race of the victim (350/670).”

May combine two claims.

As of October 15, 2016, the National Registry listed 1,900 defendants convicted and later exonerated because they were innocent; 47% were African Americans, three times their rate in the population.

“As of October 15, 2016, the National Registry of Exonerations listed 1,900 defendants who were convicted of crimes and later exonerated because they were innocent; 47% of them were African Americans, three times their rate in the population.”

May combine two claims.

Sixty percent of non-capital murder exonerees convicted of killing white victims were sentenced to life imprisonment (165/273), compared to 39% of those convicted of killing black victims (76/194).

“were sentenced to life imprisonment (165/273), compared to 39% of those who were convicted of killing black victims (76/194).”

May combine two claims.

Authorities concealed from the defense that they had asked the state bureau to compare fingerprints at the crime scene to Artis, and concealed that a trial witness had previously denied knowing about the case and had taken a lie detector test confirming his denial.

“In 1984, the police had asked the North Carolina State Bureau of Investigations to compare the fingerprints found on beer cans at the crime to those of Artis-but they hid that request from the defense.The authorities also concealed the fact that a witness who testified at trial that McCollum and Brown had admitted to the murder, had not only previously denied knowing anything about the case, but”

May combine two claims.

Assaults on white women by African-American men were a small minority of all U.S. sexual assaults but constituted half of sexual assaults with eyewitness misidentifications that led to exoneration.

“Assaults on white women by African-American men are a small minority of all sexual assaults in the United States, but they constitute half of sexual assaults with eyewitness misidentifications that led to exoneration.”

May combine two claims.

In 2015, former prosecutor A.M. 'Marty' Stroud III published an apology stating Glenn Ford was innocent and describing his own inattentiveness, unfair advantages, and an all-white jury.

“In 2015, A.M.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

After their release, the prosecutor who sent McCollum and Brown to death row told The New York Times they were guilty.

“Even so, after their release the prosecutor who sent them to death row told The New York Times:”

May combine two claims.

McCollum and Brown are two of eight innocent death-row defendants exonerated since the beginning of 2012 after spending between 30 and 39 years in prison; all eight are African Americans.

“McCollum and Brown are two of eight innocent death-row defendants who have been exonerated since the beginning of 2012 after spending between 30 and 39 years in prison.All eight are African Americans.”

May combine two claims.

About 1,900 additional innocent defendants framed and convicted in 15 large-scale police scandals were cleared in group exonerations; the great majority were black.

“About 1,900 additional innocent defendants who had been framed and convicted of crimes in 15 large-scale police scandals were cleared in”

May combine two claims.

African Americans made up 47% of the 1,900 exonerations listed by the National Registry as of October 2016, while being 13% of the U.S. population.

“African Americans are only 13% of the American population but a majority of innocent defendants wrongfully convicted of crimes and later exonerated.They constitute 47% of the 1,900 exonerations listed in the National Registry of Exonerations (as of October 2016)”

May combine two claims.

The rate of official misconduct was higher among murder exonerations with black defendants than white defendants, 76% vs 63%; among death-row exonerations, 87% of black exonerees vs 67% of white exonerees were victims of official misconduct.

“The rate of official misconduct is considerably higher among murder exonerations with black defendants than those with white defendants, 76% compared to 63%.The rate of misconduct is higher overall in capital cases, and the difference by race is greater: 87% of black exonerees who were sentenced to death were victims of official misconduct, compared to 67% of white death-row exonerees.”

May combine two claims.

About half of non-capital murder exonerees were sentenced to life imprisonment or life without parole (321/647), and the rest to shorter terms.

“About half of non-capital murder exonerees were sentenced to life imprisonment, or to life without the possibility of parolefoot_2 (321/647), and the rest were sentenced to prison for terms shorter than life.”

May combine two claims.

Innocent black murder suspects who are falsely convicted, like families of victims, are additional victims of murders committed by others; those exonerated spent on average more than 14 years in prison before release.

“Innocent black murder suspects, especially those who are falsely convicted-like the families of those who are killed-are additional victims of murders committed by others.Those who have been exonerated spent on average more than 14 years in prison before they were released.”

May combine two claims.

Half of all defendants exonerated for murder were African Americans (380/762), who were 13% of the U.S. population; this was seven times the rate for whites, who were 64% of the population but 36% of murder exonerations.

“Half of all defendants exonerated for murder are African Americans (380/762), who make up only 13% of the population of the United States.3 For the population at large, that's seven times the rate for whites, who are 64% of the population 4 but comprise only 36% of murder exonerations.”

May combine two claims.

In 1987, Monroeville, Alabama police framed Walter McMillian for murder of a white woman; he had numerous black alibi witnesses and the only reason to suspect him was a white girlfriend; he was sentenced to death in 1988 and exonerated in 1993.

“In 1987, in Monroeville, Alabama, police framed Walter McMillian for the murder of a white woman who worked as a clerk at a dry cleaner's.McMillian, a 46-year old African-American man, had numerous alibi witnesses, all black: he was at a fish fry at the time of the killing.The only reason to suspect him was that he had a white girlfriend.McMillian was sentenced to death in 1988 and exonerated in 1”

May combine two claims.

The race-of-victim disparity in murder exonerations interacts with the race-of-defendant disparity; only about 15% of murders by African Americans had white victims, but 31% of innocent African American murder exonerees were convicted of killing white people (106/341).

“The race-of-victim disparity in murder exonerations also interacts with the race-of-defendant disparity.Only about 15% of murders by African Americans have white victims, 14 but 31% of innocent African American murder exonerees were convicted of killing white people (106/341).”

May combine two claims.

In 1980, a Texas Ranger investigating a rape-murder told Clarence Brandley and a white colleague that one of them would have to hang for it and, turning to Brandley, said he was elected because he was black; Brandley was sentenced to death in 1981 and exonerated in 1990.

“He said”

May combine two claims.

The most common type of official misconduct in murder exonerations was concealing exculpatory evidence (Brady violations), occurring in just over half the cases; witness tampering occurred in 31%; perjury by a state official in 11%.

“The next most common type is witness tampering-everything from misleading a witness at a lineup, to threatening a witness, to suborning perjury-which occurred in 31% of murder exoneration cases; followed by perjury by a state official, which happened in 11% of the cases.”

May combine two claims.

Sixty-two percent of the Harris County drug-crime guilty plea exonerees were African American in a county with 20% black residents.

“Sixty-two percent of the Harris County drugcrime guilty plea exonerees were African American in a county with 20% black residents.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Hundreds of white defendants have also been falsely convicted of murder, and most of their cases included serious official misconduct.

“Hundreds of white defendants have also been falsely convicted of murder, and most of their cases included serious official misconduct.”

May combine two claims.

In 2014, Glenn Ford was exonerated after 30 years on death row in Louisiana because lawyers discovered facts undermining the state's case: false or misleading expert testimony, police lies about what Ford said, hidden police reports implicating two other suspects, and one suspect's admission he was the killer.

“In 2014, Glenn Ford was exonerated after 30 years on death row in Louisiana.He was released because over the decades after his conviction, his lawyers discovered several facts that undermined the state's case: trial testimony by the state's experts witnesses was false or misleading; police officers lied to the jury about what Ford said to them; hidden police reports included tips from informants”

May combine two claims.

McCollum and Brown were exonerated in 2014 after nearly 31 years in prison; DNA from a cigarette butt at the crime scene came from Roscoe Artis, a serial murderer and rapist.

“It determined that DNA from a cigarette butt found at the scene of the crime came from Roscoe Artis, a proven serial murderer and rapist who was himself sentenced to death for raping and killing an 18-year-old woman in the same county about a month after McCollum and Brown had confessed.”

• Also stated in: § Consider this case: · plain

  “McCollum and Brown were exonerated in 2014, after nearly 31 years in prison.”

May combine two claims.

African-American sexual assault exonerees received much longer prison sentences than white sexual assault exonerees and spent on average almost four-and-a-half years longer in prison before exoneration.

“African-American sexual assault exonerees received much longer prison sentences than white sexual assault exonerees, and they spent on average almost four-and-a-half years longer in prison before exoneration.”

May combine two claims.

African Americans are more frequently stopped, searched, arrested, and convicted, including in cases where they are innocent.

“African Americans are more frequently stopped, searched, arrested, and convicted-including in cases in which they are innocent.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

McCollum and Brown were pardoned by the Governor of North Carolina in 2015 and received $750,000 each in compensation from the state.

“They were pardoned by the Governor of North Carolina in 2015, and received $750,000 each in compensation from the state.”

May combine two claims.

Across the country, African American drivers are about as likely to be stopped as white drivers, but after a stop they are three times as likely to be searched.

“Across the country, African Americans drivers are about as likely to be stopped as white drivers, but after that, they are three times as likely to be searched.44”

• cites [44]Not matched

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May combine two claims.

The total number of defendants exonerated in known group exonerations has climbed to at least 1,840, the great majority framed for drug crimes that never happened.

“We now know of 15 group exonerations, and the total of exonerated defendants has climbed to at least 1,840, the great majority of whom were framed for drug crimes that never happened.”

May combine two claims.

Fifty-nine percent of sexual assault exonerees are African American, four-and-a-half times their population proportion, and thirty-four percent are white.

“Fifty-nine percent of sexual assault exonerees are African Americans, four-and-a-half times their proportion in the population; thirty-four percent are white.”

May combine two claims.

Some suspects in these scandals were beaten, had property stolen, or both, including some never charged with crimes.

“Some suspects were beaten, had property stolen, or both-including some who were never charged with crimes.”

May combine two claims.

Eyewitness misidentifications occurred in 69% of all sexual assault exonerations (200/289), including 86% of stranger-victim cases (176/204).

“There were eyewitness misidentifications in 69% of all sexual assault exonerations (200/289), including 86% of the cases in which the defendants were strangers to the victims (176/204).”

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

In the Rampart division scandal, approximately 156 criminal defendants had convictions vacated and dismissed by Los Angeles County judges in late 1999 and 2000, mostly young Hispanic men believed to be gang members, almost all pleading guilty to false felony drug or gun charges.

“The great majority were young Hispanic men who were believed to be gang members.Almost all pled guilty to false felony drug or gun charges.49”

May combine two claims.

Differences in criminal history cannot explain the racial gap in life sentences: among sexual assault exonerees with no prior convictions, the only two life sentences were African Americans, and average terms were 32 years for black versus 19 years for white exonerees.

“Differences in criminal history cannot explain the gap: Among sexual assault exonerees who had no prior criminal convictions, the only two who received life sentences were African Americans.The average term for the rest was 32 years for black exonerees and 19 years for white exonerees.”

May combine two claims.

Drug crime exonerations are racially concentrated: 55% (121/221) have black defendants and 24% (54/221) white defendants.

“Drug crime exonerations are even more racially concentrated: 55% (121/221) have black defendants and 24% (54/221) white defendants.”

May combine two claims.

In 1991, Philadelphia narcotics officers in the 39th District arrested African American college student Arthur Colbert and subjected him to racial slurs, beatings, a loaded pistol threat, and a break-in search before releasing him with a death threat.

“Over a period of six hours, they called him “nigger,” took him to an abandoned crack house where they beat him, took him to the precinct where they continued to beat him, held a loaded pistol to his head and threatened to kill him, broke into his apartment and searched it-and eventually released him, after promising to kill him if they ever saw him again.”

• cites [51]Not matched

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May combine two claims.

Defendants sentenced to death are about six times as likely to be exonerated as murder defendants not sentenced to death, and hundreds of times more likely than robbery defendants.

“At the top of the range, defendants who are sentenced to death are about six times as likely to be exonerated as those convicted of murder and not sentenced to death, and hundreds of times more likely than defendants convicted of robbery.38”

• cites [38]Not matched

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Kareem Torain was exonerated and released in February 2014 after more than 13 years in prison.

“He was exonerated and released in February 2014, after more than 13 years in prison.”

May combine two claims.

Thirty-five percent of those imprisoned for drug possession are black, compared to 38% white, despite African Americans being 13% of the population and using drugs at about the same rate as whites.

“In any event, 35% of those imprisoned for drug possession are also black, compared to 38% who are white, despite the fact that African Americans are 13% of the population and use drugs at about the same rate as whites.”

May combine two claims.

Black sexual assault exonerees received harsher sentences than whites: 28% got life imprisonment versus 17% for whites, and the average minimum term for non-life sentences was 29 years for African Americans and 19 years for whites.

“Black sexual assault exonerees also received harsher sentences than whites: 28% were sentenced to life imprisonment compared to 17% for white sexual assault exonerees, and the average minimum term for those who were not sentenced to life was 29 years for African Americans and 19 years for whites.”

May combine two claims.

Ninety-nine percent of victims in sexual assault exonerations are women, similar to more than 90% of all U.S. sexual assault victims.

“Ninety-nine percent of the victims in sexual assault exonerations-like more than 90% of all sexual assault victims in the United States 25 -are women.”

May combine two claims.

In May 2013, the FBI arrested Jeffrey Walker in a sting, and he ultimately admitted that he and other officers had fabricated the case against Whittaker and hundreds of other defendants over more than a decade.

“In May 2013, the FBI arrested Walker in a sting; ultimately he admitted that he and other officers had fabricated the case against Whittaker and hundreds of other defendants over more than a decade.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Kareem Torain refused to plead guilty and denied carrying drugs.

“He refused to plead guilty and denied that he was carrying any drugs.”

May combine two claims.

Table 1 lists group exonerations from 1995 to 2017 totaling at least 1,840 exonerated defendants, primarily for drug charges, and primarily Black.

“ALL CASES AT LEAST 1,840 PRIMARILY DRUG CHARGES PRIMARILY BLACK”

May combine two claims.

Eighty-eight percent of sexual assault convictions in state courts in 2000 were based on guilty pleas, almost all pursuant to plea bargains, but 96% of sexual assault exonerees went to trial.

“Eighty-eight percent of sexual assault convictions in state courts in 2000 were based on guilty pleas, almost all pursuant to plea bargains, but 96% of assault exonerees went to trial.”

May combine two claims.

Sixty-two percent of Harris County drug exonerees are African American in a county with 20% black residents, about seven times the rate for other racial groups.

“Despite the unique setting, the racial composition of the Harris County drug exonerations is familiar: 62% of the exonerees are African American in a county with 20% black residents, about seven times the rate for other racial groups.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Tom Coleman was convicted of perjury in 2005.

“In 2005, Coleman was convicted of perjury.”

• cites [66]Not matched

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May combine two claims.

The Harris County drug defendants pleaded guilty to drug possession before the seized substances were tested, and were exonerated later after testing found no illegal drugs.

“The defendants in these cases pled guilty to drug possession before the supposed drugs they possessed were tested in a crime lab, and were exonerated weeks, months or years later after testing was done and no illegal drugs were found.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In May 2002, Kareem Torain was convicted at trial and sentenced to 121⁄2 to 221⁄2 years in prison.

“In May 2002, Torain was convicted at a trial and sentenced to 12½ to 22½ years in prison.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Mia Whittaker pled guilty to drug charges despite claiming the drugs were planted and was sentenced to three years' probation.

“Despite her claim that the drugs were planted, Whittaker pled guilty and was sentenced to three years' probation.”

May combine two claims.

Most group exonerations do not receive national attention, and local news coverage is often sketchy.

“Most do not receive national attention; some barely make regional news beyond a few articles about the corrupt officers, and local news coverage is often sketchy.”

May combine two claims.

Twenty-five sexual assault exonerees spent 25 years or longer in prison; all but one were exonerated in the past nine years, and 88% of those were black, including all five imprisoned 30 to 35 years.

“Twenty-five sexual assault exonerees spent 25 years in prison or longer; all but one were exonerated in the past nine years.Of those, 88% were black, including all five who were imprisoned for 30 to 35 years.”

May combine two claims.

Strangers commit about one-fifth of sexual assaults on women but account for 71% of false convictions resulting in exoneration (204/289).

“Strangers commit only about one-fifth of sexual assaults on women, 26 but they account for 71% of the false convictions that result in exoneration (204/289).”

May combine two claims.

In half of all sexual assault exonerations with eyewitness misidentifications, black men were convicted of raping white women, a combination appearing in less than 11% of U.S. sexual assaults.

“In half of all sexual assault exonerations with eyewitness misidentifications, black men were convicted of raping white women, 28 a racial combination that appears in less than 11% of sexual assaults in the United States.29”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In November 2013, Mia Whittaker's conviction was vacated and the charge dismissed.

“In November 2013, Whittaker's conviction was vacated and the charge was dismissed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In March 2005, Jeffrey Walker and other Philadelphia narcotics officers arrested Mia Whittaker on drug charges at her home.

“In March 2005, Jeffrey Walker and other narcotics unit officers arrested Mia Whittaker on drug charges in her Philadelphia home.”

May combine two claims.

In 79% of sexual assault exonerations (228/289), identity was the only issue at trial; 86% of those were stranger rapes (195/228), and 88% included mistaken eyewitness identifications (200/228).

“In 79% of sexual assault exonerations (228/289), the identity of the man who committed the rape was the only issue at trial; 27 86% of those cases were rapes by strangers (195/228), and 88% included mistaken eyewitness identifications (200/228).”

May combine two claims.

The 2012 list update added more than 700 exonerations in Philadelphia, which leads the nation in group exonerations and accounts for a majority of all known group exonerations.

“The biggest change from the list we published in 2012 is the addition of more than 700 exonerations in Philadelphia-which leads the nation in this category of injustice by a huge margin and accounts for a majority of all known group exonerations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In January 2001, Kareem Torain was arrested by Officer Walker and charged with drug possession.

“In January 2001, 23-year-old Kareem Torain was arrested by Officer Walker and charged with possession of drugs.”

May combine two claims.

Non-violent crimes comprise more than 80% of felony convictions but fewer than 20% of exonerations; theft has about three times as many felony convictions as robbery but one-eighth the exonerations.

“Non-violent crimes comprise more than 80% of felony convictions 39 but fewer than 20% of exonerations; there are, for example, about three times as many felony convictions for theft as for robbery but one-eighth the number of exonerations.”

• cites [39]Not matched

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May combine two claims.

Misdemeanor convictions outnumber felonies by at least four to one but account for less than four percent of exonerations (70/1900).

“Misdemeanor convictions outnumber felonies by at least four to one, 40 but account for less than four percent of exonerations (70/1900).”

• cites [40]Not matched

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May combine two claims.

Russell Covey assembled detailed information on 87 Rampart exonerations and concluded that 38 qualified as exonerations by Registry criteria and were highly likely innocent, 27 included evidence of criminal culpability, and 22 were too unclear to call.

“Professor Russell Covey has assembled reasonably detailed information on 87 of the Rampart exonerations in Los Angeles.55 He concluded that 38 cases qualified as exonerations by the Registry's criteria, and the defendants are highly likely to be innocent; 27 cases included “evidence of criminal culpability” by the defendant; and 22 cases were too unclear to call.”

• cites [55]Not matched

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May combine two claims.

The risk of eyewitness misidentification in cross-racial crimes is a cause of racial disparity; most African American sexual assault exonerees were misidentified by white victims.

“The risk of eyewitness misidentification in cross-racial crimes.We see this most starkly for sexual assaults: Most African American sexual assault exonerees were misidentified by white victims.”

May combine two claims.

Official misconduct occurred in fewer than two-thirds of murder exonerations with white defendants but more than three-quarters of those with black defendants, and the difference is greater among death-sentenced defendants.

“Official misconduct occurred in fewer than two-thirds of murder exonerations with white defendants but more than three-quarters of those with black defendants-and that difference is greater among exonerations of defendants who were sentenced to death.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In 1995, a total of 155 DUI convictions were dismissed in Oaklyn.

“In 1995, a total of 155 convictions for driving under the influence were dismissed.”

• cites [60]Not matched

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May combine two claims.

After arresting 46 people on fabricated drug charges, the Texas Department of Public Safety named Tom Coleman the 1999 Outstanding Lawman of the Year.

“After he arrested 46 people on fabricated drug charges, the Texas Department of Public Safety named him as the 1999 Outstanding Lawman of the Year.58”

• cites [58]Not matched

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May combine two claims.

The investigation of the 39th spread to other districts and ultimately resulted in the dismissal of nearly 100 additional convictions.

“The investigation of the 39th spread to other districts and ultimately resulted in the dismissal of nearly 100 additional convictions.”

• cites [61]Not matched

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

King's cases came under scrutiny after she tested positive for cocaine use in 1989.

“King's cases came under scrutiny after she tested positive for cocaine use in 1989.”

• cites [59]Not matched

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May combine two claims.

In Philadelphia, Deputy Public Defender Bradley Bridge estimates that at least 95% of the more than 1,000 exonerated defendants are minorities, and the vast majority are black.

“In Philadelphia, where a majority of all group exonerations took place, Bradley Bridge, a Deputy Public Defender who has been handling and tracking that city's group exonerations for decades, estimates that “at least 95%” of the more than 1,000 exonerated defendants are minorities, 57 and the vast majority are black.”

• cites [57]Not matched

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Tom Coleman lost his job as a deputy sheriff and was indicted for theft in a different Texas county before he was hired as an undercover agent in Tulia.

“Tom Coleman, for example, lost his job as a deputy sheriff and was then indicted for theft in a different Texas county before he was hired as an undercover agent in Tulia.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The authors have no idea how often this practice really occurs.

“We have no idea how often it really occurs.”

May combine two claims.

Of the 37 Tulia exonerees, 27 pled guilty, and most received probation and fines or short incarceration.

“For example, 27 of the 37 Tulia exonerees pled guilty; most of them received probation and fines or short periods of incarceration.”

May combine two claims.

In other instances, prosecutors left it to convicted defendants to seek dismissal, which rarely happened.

“In others, they left it up to the convicted defendants themselves to seek dismissal of their convictions, if they learned that it was possible and had the resources to try; it rarely happened.”

• cites [53]Not matched

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May combine two claims.

On several occasions, Rampart officers shot and wounded unarmed suspects and then planted guns on them.

“On several occasions, they had shot and wounded unarmed suspects, and then planted guns on them.”

• cites [62]Not matched

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In August 1991, Oaklyn police officer Robert Kane pled guilty and was sentenced to prison for falsifying breathalyzer results and stealing money from drivers.

“In August, 1991, Oaklyn police officer Robert Kane pled guilty and was sentenced to prison for falsifying the results of breathalyzer tests on drivers he stopped for drunk driving, and stealing money from their purses and wallets when he booked them.”

• cites [60]Not matched

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May combine two claims.

Coppock and Cochrane were charged with assaulting a homeless man in 1997, later pleaded no-contest, and were sentenced to a year in prison.

“The officers were charged with assaulting a homeless man in 1997 and later pleaded no-contest and were sentenced to a year in prison.”

• cites [63]Not matched

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The investigations that lead to individual exonerations produce a great deal of information about each case, much of it publicly reported.

“The investigations that lead to these exonerations produce a great deal of information about each case, and much of that information is publicly reported.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Dallas "Sheetrock Scandal" came to light in January 2002.

“The Dallas “Sheetrock Scandal” came to light in January of 2002.”

• cites [64]Not matched

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May combine two claims.

Covey concluded that with one or two unlikely exceptions, all exonerated Tulia defendants were innocent, and the authors agree based on evidence reviewed.

“On the other hand, Covey concluded that with one or two unlikely exceptions, all the exonerated Tulia defendants were innocent; 56 based on the evidence we have reviewed, we agree.”

• cites [56]Not matched

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May combine two claims.

Oakland settled lawsuits for more than $11 million brought on behalf of more than 120 people who alleged they were victimized by the officers.

“Oakland settled lawsuits for more than $11 million brought on behalf of more than 120 people who alleged they were victimized by the officers.”

• cites [65]Not matched

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

As of November 2016, the conviction integrity unit had identified 43 defendants whose convictions would be vacated and dismissed.

“As of November 2016, the conviction integrity unit had identified 43 defendants whose convictions would be vacated and dismissed.”

• cites [73]Not matched

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May combine two claims.

The Benton Harbor officers were charged with embezzling money, stealing from suspects, fabricating drug buys, and planting drugs on suspects or in their homes.

“Among other crimes, they were charged with embezzling money from the police department, stealing from suspects, fabricating drug buys, and planting drugs on suspects or in their homes.”

• cites [69]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

They were eventually sentenced to 37 months and 30 months in prison.

“They were eventually sentenced to 37 months and 30 months in prison.”

• cites [69]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A public defender came to talk to Bray about a different drug case in which Bray had provided evidence against the lawyer's client.

“A public defender came to talk to him about a different drug case in which Bray had provided evidence against the lawyer's client.”

• cites [71]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

By 2004, Jefferson County prosecutors had dismissed about 50 convictions.

“By 2004, Jefferson County prosecutors had dismissed about 50 convictions.”

• cites [67]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In 2003, 35 of the Tulia defendants-all who were technically eligible-were pardoned by the governor after a judge investigated and concluded Coleman engaged in "blatant perjury" and was "the most devious...law enforcement witness this court has witnessed...."

“In 2003, 35 of them-all who were technically eligible-were pardoned by the governor after a judge investigated the cases and concluded that Coleman had engaged in “blatant perjury” and was “the most devious…law enforcement witness this court has witnessed….””

• cites [66]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The East Cleveland officers pled guilty to federal crimes and were imprisoned for planting drugs, stealing cash, and filing false search warrants.

“The officers pled guilty to federal crimes and were imprisoned for planting drugs, stealing cash and filing false search warrants.”

• cites [73]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

By 2003, a total of 76 convictions had been set aside and another 25 probation or parole revocations were dismissed.

“By 2003, a total of 76 convictions had been set aside and another 25 probation or parole revocations also were dismissed.”

• cites [65]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

As a result, 193 drug convictions were dismissed.

“As a result, 193 drug convictions were dismissed.”

• cites [70]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Most Sheetrock cases were dismissed before trial, but some innocent defendants had pled guilty and were in prison or had been deported to Mexico.

“Most of the Sheetrock cases were dismissed before trial, but some innocent defendants had pled guilty and were in prison or had been deported to Mexico.”

• cites [64]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

By 2012, three former Camden police officers had pleaded guilty to federal conspiracy charges, another officer was convicted at trial, and a fifth officer was acquitted.

“By 2012, three former Camden police officers had pleaded guilty to federal conspiracy charges, another officer was convicted at trial and a fifth officer was acquitted.”

• cites [70]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Ultimately, a Richland County sheriff's detective pled guilty to perjury during a drug trial, and a federal DEA agent was indicted and acquitted of charges of perjury and false arrests.

“Ultimately, a Richland County sheriff's detective pled guilty to perjury during a drug trial, and a federal Drug Enforcement Administration agent was indicted and acquitted of charges of perjury and false arrests.”

• cites [71]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In summer 2008, the new Camden police chief initiated an investigation into corruption in his own department, which he later turned over to the FBI.

“In the summer of 2008, the new Camden police chief initiated an investigation into corruption in his own department, which he later turned over to the FBI.”

• cites [70]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In May 2007, Jerrel Bray, a long-time drug dealer and police informant from Mansfield, Ohio, was in jail in nearby Cleveland for shooting a man in a drug deal.

“In May 2007, Jerrel Bray, a long-time drug dealer and police informant from Mansfield, Ohio, was in jail in nearby Cleveland for shooting a man in a drug deal.”

• cites [71]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In November 2000, four Oakland police officers known as "The Riders" were charged with assault, making false arrests, filing false reports, and other crimes.

“In November 2000, four Oakland police officers known as “The Riders” were charged with assault, making false arrests, filing false reports and other crimes.”

• cites [65]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

One Rider officer remains a fugitive; the other three were tried twice, but charges were dismissed after juries deadlocked in both trials.

“One officer remains a fugitive.The other three were tried twice, but the charges were dismissed after the juries deadlocked in both trials.”

• cites [65]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Walker cooperated in a federal investigation that led to the indictment in 2014 of six other narcotics unit members for framing defendants on drug charges dating back to 2006, although authorities believe the illegal conduct dated as far back as 2000.

“Walker cooperated in a federal investigation that led to the indictment in 2014 of six other narcotics unit members for framing defendants on drug charges dating back to 2006although authorities believe the illegal conduct dated as far back as 2000.”

• cites [72]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Sgt. Torris Moore and officers Eric Jones and Antonio Malone admitted framing suspected drug dealers-all of whom were black-after they were charged in October 2015 following a two-year FBI investigation.

“Sgt.Torris Moore and fellow officers Eric Jones and Antonio Malone admitted framing suspected drug dealers-all of whom were black-after they were charged in October 2015 following a two-year FBI investigation.”

• cites [73]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Differences in homicide rates may explain most of the enormous racial disparity in exoneration rates for murder, but not all.

“Differences in homicide rates may explain most of the enormous racial disparity in exoneration rates for murder, but not all.”

May combine two claims.

Eyewitness misidentifications do not completely explain the racial disparity in sexual assault exonerations; some misidentifications were partly products of racial bias, and other convictions were marred by implicit biases, racially tainted official misconduct, and explicit racism.

“Eyewitness misidentifications do not completely explain the racial disparity in sexual assault exonerations.Some misidentifications themselves are in part the products of racial bias, and other convictions that led to sexual assault exonerations were marred by implicit biases, racially tainted official misconduct and, in some cases, explicit racism.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The unreliability of cross-racial eyewitness identification also appears to have contributed to racial disparities in false convictions for other crimes, but to a lesser extent.

“(The unreliability of cross-racial eyewitness identification also appears to have contributed to racial disparities in false convictions for other crimes, but to a lesser extent.)”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Part of the explanation for the high number of black murder exonerees convicted of killing white victims may be the perils of cross-racial eyewitness identification.

“Part of the explanation for the high number of black murder exonerees who were convicted of killing white victims may be the perils of cross-racial eyewitness identification.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Inter-racial violence by African Americans is punished more harshly than intra-racial violence, and it would not be surprising if it were also pursued with greater ferocity and less accuracy.

“Beyond that, it is no news that inter-racial violence by African Americans is punished more harshly than intra-racial violence.It would not be surprising to learn that it is also pursued with greater ferocity, and less accuracy.”

May combine two claims.

The pattern of harsher sentencing for murder convictions with white victims and lighter sentencing for those with black victims is not restricted to death sentences; innocent murder defendants in white-victim cases who avoid death are more likely to receive life than those charged with killing black victims.

“In other words, judging from exonerations, the pattern of harsh sentencing for murder convictions with white victims and lighter sentencing for those with black victims is not restricted to death sentences.If they avoid the death penalty, innocent murder defendants in white-victim cases are also more likely to be sentenced to life in prison than those charged with killing black victims.”

May combine two claims.

In routine drug possession cases, African Americans are more likely than whites to be convicted by mistake because, guilty or innocent, they are more likely to be stopped, searched, and arrested.

“In routine drug possession cases, African Americans are more likely than whites to be convicted by mistake because-guilty or innocentthey are more likely to be stopped, searched and arrested.”

May combine two claims.

Black murder exonerees averaged about three more years in prison than white murder exonerees, meaning that at any given time a larger proportion of black murder defendants who will eventually be exonerated are still in prison.

“In other words, black murder exonerees average about three more years in prison than white murder exonerees-which means that, at any given time, a larger proportion of black murder defendants who will eventually be exonerated are still in prison”

May combine two claims.

As with murder, the leading cause of sexual assault false convictions is far from the only one; there is clear evidence of racial bias ranging from unconscious bias to explicit racism.

“As with murder exonerations, however, the leading cause is far from the only one.We see clear evidence of racial bias, ranging from unconscious bias to explicit racism.”

May combine two claims.

The high murder rate means African Americans are far more likely than whites to be investigated, arrested, and convicted of murder; mostly those investigated and convicted are guilty, but innocent African Americans also face a much higher risk of being suspected and convicted despite innocence.

“This high murder rate means that African Americans are far more likely than whites to be investigated, arrested and convicted of murder.Mostly, those who are investigated and convicted are guilty.But innocent African Americans also face a much higher risk of being suspected of murder, and of being convicted despite their innocence.”

May combine two claims.

Some false drug convictions are not mistakes; African Americans are also the main targets in scandals where police systematically framed innocent defendants for drug crimes that never occurred.

“Some false drug convictions, however, are not mistakes.African Americans are also the main targets in a shocking series of scandals in which police officers systematically framed innocent defendants for drug crimes that never occurred.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Police officers who conduct framing programs concentrate on African Americans because they focus disproportionately on African Americans in all aspects of drug-law enforcement, whether guilty or innocent.

“The simple answer: Because that's what they do in all aspects of drug-law enforcement.Guilty or innocent, they always focus disproportionately on African Americans.”

May combine two claims.

African Americans were more than seven times more likely to be imprisoned for murder than white Americans and more than six times as likely to be killed in a homicide.

“African Americans are more than seven times more likely to be imprisoned for murder than white Americans, 5 and more than six times as likely to be killed in a homicide.6”

• cites Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Dep't of Justice.Prisoners in 2015.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Dep't of Justice.Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980-2008.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Drug investigations are initiated by police themselves, who search for crimes that are almost never reported, giving police essentially unlimited discretion to choose how, where, and against whom to enforce drug laws, opening the door to pervasive discrimination.

“With rare exceptions, drug investigations are initiated by the police themselves, who go searching for crimes that are almost never reported.The police have essentially unlimited discretion to choose how and where to enforce drug laws, and against whom, which opens the door to pervasive discrimination.”

May combine two claims.

Official misconduct in criminal cases is under-reported because most misconduct is deliberately concealed and much remains hidden.

“Official misconduct in criminal cases is under-reported because, by its very nature, most misconduct is deliberately concealed-and much if not most remains hidden.17”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Official misconduct in criminal cases is under-reported because most misconduct is deliberately concealed and much remains hidden.

May combine two claims.

The disparities in the paper's data suggest that innocent defendants charged with killing white victims were more likely to be sentenced to death, and sometimes executed, than those charged with killing black victims.

“The disparities we see in our data suggest that innocent defendants who are charged with killing white victims are more likely to be sentenced to death, and sometimes no doubt executed, than those charged with killing black victims.”

May combine two claims.

Innocent black murder defendants as a group are disadvantaged because of their race, and this sometimes costs them their freedom and remaining years.

“But we do know that innocent black murder defendants as a group are at a disadvantage because of their race, and that sometimes it costs them their freedom and most or all of their remaining years.”

May combine two claims.

Homicide rates alone do not explain the high number of African Americans falsely convicted of murder or the length of time they spent in prison before release; misconduct and discrimination also played major parts.

“But homicide rates alone do not explain the high number of African Americans who were falsely convicted of murder or the length of time they spent in prison before release.Misconduct and discrimination also played major parts.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

There are almost certainly many more hidden group exoneration cases.

“There are almost certainly many more such cases that remain hidden.”

May combine two claims.

It appears that innocent black sexual assault defendants receive harsher sentences than whites if convicted, and then face greater resistance to exoneration even when ultimately released.

“It appears that innocent black sexual assault defendants receive harsher sentences than whites if they are convicted, and then face greater resistance to exoneration even in cases in which they are ultimately released.”

May combine two claims.

Wrongful murder convictions are also more likely to include undiscovered misconduct when the defendant is black, in exonerations with known misconduct, in those with no known misconduct, and among false murder convictions that have not resulted in exoneration.

“convictions are also more likely to include undiscovered misconduct when the defendant is black: in exonerations for which some misconduct already is known, in those with no known misconduct, and among false murder convictions that have not resulted in exoneration.”

May combine two claims.

The causes of the heavy concentration of black defendants among those convicted of crimes they did not commit range from inevitable consequences of patterns in crime and punishment to deliberate acts of racism, and differ by crime type.

“The causes we have identified run from inevitable consequences of patterns in crime and punishment to deliberate acts of racism, with many stops in between.They differ sharply from one type of crime to another.”

May combine two claims.

Innocent African Americans convicted of murder were at a disadvantage not only because their convictions were more likely influenced by official misconduct, but also simply because of their race.

“It seems that innocent African Americans who are convicted of murder are at a disadvantage not only because their convictions were more likely to have been influenced by official misconduct, but also simply because of their race.”

May combine two claims.

Murder in America is overwhelmingly intra-racial: 84% of white murder victims and 93% of black murder victims are killed by members of their own race.

“Murder in America is overwhelmingly intra-racial: 84% of white murder victims and 93% of black murder victims are killed by members of their own race.7”

• cites Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Dep't of Justice. Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980-2008.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Sherman, Amy.An updated look at statistics on black-on-black murders.PolitiFact Florida.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The leading cause of these false sexual assault convictions was mistaken eyewitness identifications, which are notoriously error-prone when white Americans are asked to identify black strangers.

“The leading cause of these false convictions was mistaken eyewitness identifications-a notoriously error-prone process when white Americans are asked to identify black strangers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

African Americans are prime targets of racial profiling, especially in drug-law enforcement.

“And, of course, African Americans are the prime targets of racial profiling-especially in the context of drug-law enforcement.”

The quote only partly states this claim.

Most Harris County drug defendants who pleaded guilty did so to get out of jail.

“As far as we can tell, however, most pled guilty to get out of jail.”

May combine two claims.

The 4.1% false conviction estimate applies only to death sentences and cannot be applied to all crimes or all murders.

“As the study is careful to point out, this estimate is for death sentences only.It cannot be applied to all crimes, or even to all murders.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The list in Table 1 is far from complete.

“The list in Table 1 is far from complete.”

May combine two claims.

In 2000, only 1.6% of sexual assault defendants convicted in state courts were sentenced to life, the average maximum term was 7 years, and 16% received probation.

“In 2000, for example, only 1.6% of all sexual assault defendants convicted in state courts were sentenced to life imprisonment, the average maximum term of incarceration was 7 years, and 16% received probation (as did one of 289 sexual assault exonerees, 0.3%).32”

• cites [32]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

About 70% of white sexual assault victims were attacked by white men and only about 13% by black men, according to victim surveys.

“According to surveys of crime victims, about 70% of white sexual assault victims were attacked by white men and only about 13% by black men.30”

• cites [30]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

It is likely that at least several thousand defendants were falsely convicted of murder during the Registry period, and about half of them were African Americans.

“In short, it is likely that at least several thousand defendants have been falsely convicted of murder in the time period covered by the Registry, and-judging from the exonerations we have seenabout half of them were African Americans.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The proportion of innocent defendants among all murder convictions is half the death-sentence false-conviction rate, i.e., 2%.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Racial bias and outright racism play a role in wrongful convictions for sexual assault.

“It should be no surprise that racial bias and outright racism also play a role in wrongful convictions for sexual assault.”

May combine two claims.

Few crime labs conduct post-plea drug tests, so lab tests are rarely done in routine drug cases, since 95% or more of drug possession convictions are based on guilty pleas usually entered before lab tests.

“Few crime labs do that, which means that lab tests are rarely done in routine drug cases, since 95% or more of drug possession convictions are based on guilty pleas that are usually entered before lab tests.”

May combine two claims.

Innocent sexual assault defendants who went to trial paid heavily for their day in court, especially African Americans.

“From the look of it, they paid heavily for their day in court-especially the African Americans.”

May combine two claims.

About 10% of the U.S. population over 12 used illegal drugs in the previous year, with use roughly evenly distributed across Hispanics (8.8%), whites (9.5%), and African Americans (10.5%).

“Like earlier ones, it found that about 10% of the population over 12 years of age had used illegal drugs in the previous year, and that this use was more or less evenly distributed across the largest racial groups: 8.8% for Hispanics, 9.5% for whites and 10.5% percent for African Americans.34”

• cites [34]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The quote only partly states this claim.

Much of the racial disparity in prison time is caused by a small number of exonerees imprisoned for decades.

“Much of this disparity is caused by a comparatively small number of exonerees who were imprisoned for decades.”

May combine two claims.

As of the end of 2014, 22% of American prisoners convicted of sexual assault were black, 44% were white, and 19% were Hispanic.

“As of the end of 2014, 22% of American prisoners convicted of sexual assault were black, 44% were white and 19% Hispanic.”

• cites [24]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Thirty-three percent of those serving prison terms for drug offenses are African Americans, two-and-a-half times their population proportion.

“Thirty-three percent of those serving prison terms for drug offenses are African Americans, two-and-a-half times their proportion in the population.35”

• cites [35]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

African Americans are about five times as likely to go to prison for drug possession as whites, and innocent black people are about 12 times more likely to be convicted of drug crimes than innocent white people.

“Overall African Americans are about five times as likely to go to prison for drug possession as whites, and judging from exonerations, innocent black people are about 12 times more likely to be convicted of drug crimes than innocent white people.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Some eyewitness misidentifications are products of racial bias.

“Eyewitness misidentifications do not occur in a vacuum.Some are the products of racial bias.”

May combine two claims.

Fifty-seven percent of white-victim sexual assault exonerees are black (101/177) and 37% are white, suggesting black defendants convicted of raping white women are about eight times more likely to be innocent than white men convicted of raping women of their own race.

“But 57% of whitevictim sexual assault exonerees are black (101/177), and 37% are white-which suggests that black defendants convicted of raping white women are about eight times more likely to be innocent than white men convicted of raping women of their own race.”

May combine two claims.

African Americans bear much of the brunt of drug-law enforcement, including false drug possession convictions that may number in the thousands or tens of thousands a year.

“As a result, they bear much of the brunt of drug-law enforcement-including false drug possession convictions, which may number in the thousands if not tens of thousands a year.”

May combine two claims.

False convictions far outnumber exonerations, and most remain hidden.

“Most by far remain hidden-false convictions far outnumber exonerations-and we have too little information to estimate that hidden figure.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

If the proportion of innocent defendants among all murder convictions were half the death-sentence rate (2%), there would be about 3,400 innocent defendants among the estimated 171,700 inmates in American prisons for murder convictions, plus thousands more among released or deceased murder convicts.

“That would mean there would be about 3,400 innocent defendants among the estimated 171,700 inmates who are in American prisons for murder convictions, 23 plus thousands more among the comparable number of defendants who were convicted of murder in the past 40 years but are not now in prison because they were released or have died, or both.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The proportion of innocent defendants among all murder convictions is half the death-sentence false-conviction rate, i.e., 2%.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Racial profiling is a type of misconduct that is inherently racially discriminatory.

“Racial profiling, which we just mentioned, is a type of misconduct that is inherently racially discriminatory.”

May combine two claims.

It is nearly prohibitively expensive to establish innocence in such cases, and it almost never happens except in group exonerations or situations obviating costly investigation.

“It is nearly prohibitively expensive to establish the innocence of the defendants in such cases.It almost never happens-except in the context of group exonerations, or in some other situation that obviates the need for costly investigation, such as the drug testing in the Harris County drug guiltyplea exonerations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In all likelihood, the great majority of false convictions that result from police perjury and frame-ups are never discovered.

“In all likelihood, the great majority of false convictions that result are never discovered, from one end of the spectrum to the other.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

There is too little information on most group exonerations to include them in the database of individual exonerations, and the two categories should be studied separately.

“In short, we have too little information on most group exonerations to include them in our database of individual exonerations; and in any event, the two categories should be studied separately rather than mixed together.”

May combine two claims.

The same cross-racial misidentification problem very likely contributes to the high proportion of black exonerees in murder cases, but to a lesser extent, and probably also to false convictions for other violent crimes not examined in detail.

“The same problem very likely contributes to the high proportion of black exonerees in murder cases, but to a lesser extent.It probably also contributes to false convictions for other violent crimes that we have not examined in detail.”

May combine two claims.

African Americans are more often stopped, questioned, and searched than whites.

“African Americans are more often stopped, questioned and searched than whites.”

May combine two claims.

There might be legitimate justifications for some of these practices, but there is strong evidence that they also reflect racial profiling and other forms of discrimination against African Americans in drug-law enforcement.

“There might be legitimate justifications for some of these practices, but there is strong evidence that they also reflect racial profiling and other forms of discrimination against African Americans in drug-law enforcement.”