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Neuroinflammation, Oxidative Stress and the Pathogenesis of Alzheimers Disease
Abstract
Alzheimers disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder that affects the elderly. The increase of lifeexpectancy is transforming AD into a major health-care problem. AD is characterized by a progressive impairment of memory and other cognitive skills leading to dementia. The major pathogenic factor associated to AD seems to be amyloid-beta peptide (Aβ) oligomers that tend to accumulate extracellularly as amyloid deposits and are associated with reactive microglia and astrocytes as well as with degeneration of neuronal processes. The involvement of microglia and astrocytes in the onset and progress of neurodegenerative process in AD is becoming increasingly recognized, albeit it is commonly accepted that neuroinflammation and oxidative stress can have both detrimental and beneficial influences on the neural tissue. However, little is known about the interplay of microglia, astrocytes and neurons in response to Aβ, especially in the early phases of AD. This review discusses current knowledge about the involvement of neuroinflammation in AD pathogenesis, focusing on phenotypic and functional responses of microglia, astrocytes and neurons in this process. The abnormal production by glia cells of pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and the complement system, as well as reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, can disrupt nerve terminals activity causing dysfunction and loss of synapses, which correlates with memory decline; these are phenomena preceding the neuronal death associated with late stages of AD. Thus, therapeutic strategies directed at controlling the activation of microglia and astrocytes and the excessive production of pro-inflammatory and pro-oxidant factors may be valuable to control neurodegeneration in dementia. Keywords: Amyloid-beta, microglia, astrocytes, neurons, pro-inflammatory factors, reactive oxygen species, neurodegeneration, Alzheimer's disease, Dementia, Neuroinflammation, Pro-oxidant factors, Memory, Mild cognitive impairment, CNS, cytokines, prostaglandins, IL-1, PPAR-g, Complement system, Amyloid pla, Trophic factors, Glia-derived neurotrophic factor, Glial scars, Ca2+ overload, Homeostasis, Antioxidants, Electron transport chain, Curcumin, Quercetin
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“Finally, they have an impact on the unsaturated fatty acids chain of membrane phospholipids, causing cell lysis [116,117,118].”
From Multi-Target Mechanisms of Phytochemicals in Alzheimer’s Disease: Effects on Oxidative Stress, Neuroinflammation and Protein Aggregation (2022) · cites this paper as [117]
In the citing paper
“This immune response causes both an invasion of the glia by circulating immune cells and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL) IL-1β and IL-6-, nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), chemokines, and ROS.”
From Multi-Target Mechanisms of Phytochemicals in Alzheimer’s Disease: Effects on Oxidative Stress, Neuroinflammation and Protein Aggregation (2022) · cites this paper as [117]
In the citing paper
“AD is also induced by neuroinflammation processes that occur as a brain immune barrier [117,154].”
From Multi-Target Mechanisms of Phytochemicals in Alzheimer’s Disease: Effects on Oxidative Stress, Neuroinflammation and Protein Aggregation (2022) · cites this paper as [117]
In the citing paper
“Oxidative stress associated with Aβ pathology plays an important role in the death of neurons in the AD brain [82,83,84,85].”
From Centella Asiatica Improves Memory and Promotes Antioxidative Signaling in 5XFAD Mice (2019) · cites this paper as [82]
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BackgroundEdaravone attenuates intracerebroventricular streptozotocin‐induced cognitive impairment in rats
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A nicotinic receptor-mediated anti-inflammatory effect of the flavonoid rhamnetin in BV2 microglia
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Vartak-Sharma, N., Nooka, S., & Ghorpade, A. (2016) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2016.03.006 · Cited by 27
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Roles of Microglial Ion Channel in Neurodegenerative Diseases
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“In the CNS, pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines can be generated locally by activated microglia and astrocytes [14,26,35,54,125], or they could be transported across the blood–brain barrier from the peripheral circulation [52,153].”
Chatterjee, G., Saha, A. K., Khurshid, S., & Saha, A. (2025) · Journal of Medicinal Food · doi:10.1089/jmf.2024.k.0149 · Cited by 26
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Protective Effects of the Caffeine Against Neurodegenerative Diseases
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Mhillaj, E., Papi, M., Paciello, F., Silvestrini, A., Rolesi, R., Palmieri, V., Perini, G., Fetoni, A. R., Trabace, L., & Mancuso, C. (2020) · Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology · doi:10.3389/fcell.2020.561179 · Cited by 25
“…with the abnormal formation of reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species (ROS and RNS, respectively), has been reported to be responsible for the increasing neuronal death, mainly in brain cognitive areas (e.g., hippocampus and frontal cortex) (reviewed in Agostinho et al., 2010).”
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Elevated CSF and plasma microparticles in a rat model of streptozotocin-induced cognitive impairment
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LPS-Induced Inflammation Abolishes the Effect of DYRK1A on IkB Stability in the Brain of Mice
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Lipids and lipoproteins may play a role in the neuropathology of Alzheimer’s disease
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“Inflammatory cytokines, oxidative stress, and ox-LDL can induce its expression (Mehta et al., 2006), and these stimuli may be regarded as a hallmark of AD (Agostinho et al., 2010).”
BackgroundAlkaloids as drug leads in Alzheimer's treatment: Mechanistic and therapeutic insights
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VGF expression by T lymphocytes in patients with Alzheimer's disease
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“These pathologies ultimately progress to neurodegeneration [5].”
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“proteins, neuroinflammation, excitotoxicity and apoptotic-like programmed cell death (PCD) are the most common (Agostinho et al., 2010; Agostini et al., 2011; Navarro and Boveris, 2009; Swerdlow, 2009; Yong-Kee et al., 2012).”
BackgroundAlterations of GABA B receptors in the APP/PS1 mouse model of Alzheimer's disease
Salazar, A., Osse, A. M. L., Ortiz, A. A., Murtishaw, A. S., & Kinney, J. W. (2020) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2020.10.013 · Cited by 26
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“(Kurz and Perneczky 2011; Agostinho et al. 2010; Casadesus et al. 2004; Arendt 2009); however, removal of neurotoxic Ab may attenuate symptoms or delay disease”
BackgroundNeuroinflammation and Cognitive Dysfunction in Chronic Disease and Aging
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“…are found clustered around amyloid plaques, and elevated levels of cytokines and other inflammatory mediators found in patients with AD have been proposed to contribute to ongoing pathology, neural dysfunction, and synaptic loss (Mrak and Griffin, 2005; Agostinho et al., 2010; Heneka et al., 2010).”
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A DNA Methylation Signature of Addiction in T Cells and Its Reversal With DHEA Intervention
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“Significance was assessed by the Fisher hyper-geometric test. functions were associated with other neuropsychiatric disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease (Agostinho et al., 2010).”
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Adverse events in older adults and the risk of dementia and cognitive decline
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BackgroundRole of Astrocytes in Neurodegenerative Diseases
George, E., González, J., Capani, F., & Morales, L. (2011) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/31166 · Cited by 21
“Similarly, this peptide decreases glutamate uptake in cultured astrocytes, thus increasing oxidative stress and and activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase cascades (Agostinho et al., 2010; Matos et al., 2008).”
BackgroundOrganophosphates Induced Alzheimer's Disease: An Epigenetic Aspect
Yadav, S. S., Singh, M. K., & Yadav, R. S. (2016) · Journal of Clinical Epigenetics · Cited by 21
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Pine needle extract prevents hippocampal memory impairment in acute restraint stress mouse model
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“In a state of excitotoxicity, reactive glial cells are deeply associated with neuroinflammatory response and oxidative stress (Agostinho et al., 2010) via”
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“Neuroinflammation and oxidative stress play a critical role in the pathogenesis of dementia [81].”
BackgroundNeuroinflammation and Alzheimer's disease: Unravelling the molecular mechanisms
Kakkar, A., Singh, H., Singh, B. K., Kumar, A., Mishra, A. K., & Chopra, H. (2025) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.1177/13872877251374353 · Cited by 26
Polyphenols Suppress and Modulate Inflammation
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Analysis of Cerebral Small Vessel Changes in AD Model Mice
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“Therefore, restoration of the blood–brain barrier functions along with increased clearance of A β could provide a better outcome of AD therapy.”
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“However, all clinical studies conducted to date have not proven a clear beneficial effect of antioxidant treatment in AD [38], the most common neurodegenerative disorder [39].”
BackgroundEffects and mechanism of amyloid β1-42 on mitochondria in astrocytes
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Metadata
- Authors
- Agostinho, P., A. Cunha, R., & Oliveira, C.
- Affiliations
- University of Coimbra (PT)
- Corresponding author
- Oliveira, Catarina
- Venue
- Current Pharmaceutical Design
- Publisher
- Bentham Science Publishers Ltd.
- Published
- 2010-08-01
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 25
- Pages
- 2766-2778
- ISSN
- 1381-6128 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2114324710
- Cited by
- 685
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 35 · 2025: 44 · 2024: 46 · 2023: 43 · 2022: 52 · 2021: 61 · 2020: 58 · 2019: 42 · 2018: 44 · 2017: 51 · 2016: 32 · 2015: 36 · 2014: 34 · 2013: 37 · 2012: 41
- FWCI
- 20.75
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Current Pharmaceutical Design (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Alzheimer's disease research and treatments
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neurological Disease Mechanisms and Treatments
- Keywords
- Alzheimer's disease, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, amyloid-beta oligomers, amyloid plaques, microglia, astrocytes, neurodegeneration, inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, complement system, reactive oxygen species, reactive nitrogen species, synaptic loss, memory impairment, mild cognitive impairment, glial activation, antioxidants, curcumin, quercetin, glial scar, calcium overload, PPARγ
- MeSH terms
- Alzheimer Disease, Animals, Antioxidants, Brain, Humans, Models, Neurological, Nerve Degeneration, Neuroglia, Drug Delivery Systems, Oxidative Stress, Inflammation Mediators
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