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Cited by 7Archaeology and ancient environmental studiesHistorical and Cultural Archaeology StudiesAmazonian Archaeology and Ethnohistory

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 8 of the 8 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 23 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.

Cider, Wheat, Maize, and Firewood: Paleoethnobotany at Sylvester Manor

Open access
Trigg, Heather, Leasure, Ashley·2007·Northeast Historical Archaeology
DOI 10.22191/neha/vol36/iss1/10
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Abstract

The paleoethnobotanical analysis program at Sylvester Manor is designed to investigate the relationships between the Sylvesters, their workers, and the botanical environment. Most of the contexts sampled provide information about domestic household consumption. The site residents used large quantities of oak for fuel and possibly building construction. Documents provide more robust information about the production of crops and interactions with Native peoples, suggesting that local Native Americans provided a source of labor for the production of crops.

Overview

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Paleoethnobotanical analysis at Sylvester Manor shows charred plant remains dominated by oak fuelwood, with sparse domestic food debris mixing Old World wheat/peach and New World maize/nuts. North Peninsula shell middens provide the first direct evidence of pre-European maize agriculture on Shelter Island, while documents indicate Native labor and exchange in plantation crop production.

Key findings

  • The plantation-core midden yielded sparse food remains: 1 wheat kernel, 2 maize kernels, 10 nutshell/nutmeat fragments, and seeds of weedy/non-cultivated plants; charred wood was dominated by oak (midden oak count 109), with smaller amounts of hickory, beech, maple, and walnut.
  • North Peninsula shell middens produced large quantities of charred wood and hickory nutshell fragments, plus maize kernels and cupules—the first direct evidence for pre-European agriculture on the island; despite the plantation core being examined at almost three times the sediment volume, the Native shell middens contained more plant remains both qualitatively and quantitatively (Table 1 totals: maize 56, nutshell/nut 588; North Peninsula alone: maize 32, nutshell/nut 550).
  • Feature 221 yielded small quantities of Old World crops (5 wheat kernels, 1 peach pit) and 1 maize kernel, with wood dominated by oak (930) and significant hickory (252); Feature 226 and adjacent features contained 2 maize, 3 wheat, and 2 nutshell fragments, also largely oak with significant hickory.
  • The Southwest Lawn “Burned Area” charcoal concentration was primarily maple with significant beech, in stark contrast to the oak-dominated assemblages elsewhere, possibly representing a much more recent burning episode.

Methods

  • Over the first five years of excavation, nearly 1000 flotation samples were taken and just over 20% were analyzed; all analyzed samples were examined for charred seeds and wood, and an additional 100 samples from screens were examined for charred wood, focused on Features 226 and 221.
  • Macrobotanical analysis grouped samples by feature/excavation area (North Peninsula, midden, features beneath the midden, Feature 221, Feature 226 and adjacent features, North Lawn features, Burned Area); because all remains came from open-air contexts, only charred plant remains survived.
  • Pollen sampling tested terrestrial areas adjacent to excavation units and marshy areas near the manor; terrestrial pollen was poorly preserved, while cores from Gardiner’s Creek and other permanently wet places showed excellent preliminary preservation but await full analysis.

Limitations

  • Stated: open-air preservation limits the assemblage to charred remains; low seed and nutshell density makes quantitative food analysis difficult; terrestrial pollen was poorly preserved and marsh pollen cores are not fully analyzed; shell middens are not yet dated; the evidence cannot determine the relative importance of maize and wheat, whether food practices differed within the household, whether hickory processing reflects Native provisioning, Sylvester adoption, or Native self-provisioning, or what role plants played in the export economy.
  • Evident: only just over 20% of flotation samples have been analyzed, and the paleoethnobotanical research is described as ongoing and preliminary.
  • Evident: some charred wood pieces were too small for secure identification, though ring-porous woods dominated and were likely oak.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.22191/neha/vol36/iss1/10

Cites

8 of 8 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Verification

Claims the paper makes

0 of 23 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Small quantities of goosefoot (Chenopodium sp.) seeds were found in association with other food plants.

    “Small quantities of goosefoot (Chenopodium sp.) seeds were found in association with other food plants.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Feature 226 contained large quantities of charred wood and small amounts of food debris.

    “Feature 226 (see fig. 3), a large feature located on the south lawn about 10 meters west of Feature 221, contained large quantities of charred wood and small amounts of food debris.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Charred wood from the North Peninsula shell middens included substantial quantities of hickory, maple, and softwood in addition to smaller amounts of oak.

    “Charred wood from these features included substantial quantities of hickory, maple, and softwood in addition to smaller amounts of oak, which is nearly ubiquitous in the archaeological samples.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The Southwest Lawn burned area is in stark contrast to all other areas of the site, which are dominated by oak.

    “This is in stark contrast to all other areas of the site, which are dominated by oak.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingcitation

    An account book from the late 17th century indicates the household also produced apples and pears.

    “We lack archaeological evidence for many plants that must have been consumed or contributed to the plantation economy, but an account book from the late 17th century indicates the household also produced apples and pears (G.Sylvester 1680-1701).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites G.Sylvester 1680-1701

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one. 39
  • Probably not a substantial claim. 10

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The vast majority of the nutshells and more than half of the maize from the excavations come from the North Peninsula.

    “The vast majority of the nutshells and more than half of the maize from our excavations come from the North Peninsula, and while the number of fruit and weedy seeds are low, the species richness from these contexts is higher than from the plantation core.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The midden plants recovered included 1 kernel of wheat, 2 of maize, 10 nutshell and nutmeat fragments, and the seeds of several weedy and non-cultivated plants.

    “The plants recovered included 1 kernel of wheat, 2 of maize, 10 nutshell and nutmeat fragments, and the seeds of several weedy and non-cultivated plants.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Preliminary examination indicates that preservation in the pollen cores is excellent and that the cores have the potential for yielding information about landscape changes associated with the plantation activities.

    “While the pollen in these cores has not been fully analyzed, preliminary examination indicates that preservation is excellent and that the cores have the potential for yielding information about landscape changes associated with the plantation activities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The midden in the plantation core yielded a substantial amount of charred wood and a small variety of food remains.

    “The midden in the plantation core was extensively sampled and yielded a substantial amount of charred wood and a small variety of food remains.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    From the shell middens, large quantities of charred wood and hickory nutshell fragments were recovered.

    “From the shell middens, we recovered large quantities of charred wood and hickory nutshell fragments.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Maize kernels and cupules were recovered from the North Peninsula shell middens, providing the first direct evidence for pre-European agriculture on the island.

    “Maize kernels and cupules (portions of cobs) were also recovered providing the first direct evidence for pre-European agriculture on the island.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Maize is a crop associated with indigenous peoples.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The Southwest Lawn burned area wood assemblage was remarkably uniform and consisted primarily of maple with smaller but significant quantities of beech wood.

    “The wood assemblage was remarkably uniform throughout the burned area and consisted primarily of maple with smaller, but still significant quantities of beech wood.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    In all midden samples, the density of seeds and related plant parts was low, providing only limited evidence of the consumption of foods.

    “In all samples, the density of seeds and related plant parts was low, providing only limited evidence of the consumption of foods.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Findingnone given

    Most of the contexts sampled provide information about domestic household consumption.

    “Most of the contexts sampled provide information about domestic household consumption.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Feature 221 yielded small quantities of several Old World crops, a few wheat kernels and a peach pit, and a New World domesticate in the form of a single maize kernel.

    “This large pit feature in the Southeast Lawn yielded small quantities of several Old World crops, a few wheat kernels and a peach pit, and a New World domesticate in the form of a single maize kernel.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The Sylvesters introduced wheat and peaches from Europe.
    • Rests on an assumption: Maize is a crop associated with indigenous peoples.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Nutshells are largely absent from the plant assemblage from the plantation core, although they can be found in small features that may be associated with Native American use of the area prior to the Sylvesters' arrival and are clearly important in the pre-European occupation on the North Peninsula.

    “Nutshells are largely absent from the plant assemblage from the plantation core, although they can be found in small features that may be associated with Native American use of the area prior to the Sylvesters' arrival and are clearly important in the pre-European occupation on the North Peninsula.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The wood from the midden samples represents a variety of tree types, but the spectrum is dominated by oak and oak/chestnut.

    “The wood from the midden samples represent a variety of tree types, but the spectrum is dominated by oak and oak/chestnutfoot_0 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    The site residents used large quantities of oak for fuel and possibly building construction.

    “The site residents used large quantities of oak for fuel and possibly building construction.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The plant remains in the North Peninsula features were limited but contained hickory nutshells and several types of fruit seeds.

    “The plant remains in these features were limited, but contained hickory nutshells and several types of fruit seeds (tabs. 1 and 2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Taxa from Feature 226 included Old and New World domesticates, gathered resources such as nuts and berries, and weedy plants.

    “Taxa included Old and New World domesticates, gathered resources such as nuts and berries, and weedy plants.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning

    Although grains were grown at the plantation, production did not always fill the plantation's needs, and the Sylvesters bought wheat from others and traded apples for maize from local Native Americans.

    “Although grains were grown at the plantation, this production did not always fill the plantation's needs, and the Sylvesters bought wheat from others and traded apples for maize from the local Native Americans.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingcitation

    Upon his death in 1680, Nathaniel Sylvester left to his wife Grissell his share of the houses, gardens, and orchards on Shelter Island.

    “Upon his death in 1680, Nathaniel left to his wife Grissell his share of the”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites N.Sylvester 1680

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning

    Native Americans provided labor for fieldwork and crop production, and in return the Sylvesters paid them in plantation products such as cider, apples, and pears.

    “The Native Americans also provided labor for the fieldwork and the production of crops, and in return, the Sylvesters paid them in products from the plantation such as cider, apples, and pears.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The charred food remains demonstrate the same low-density mix of cultigens and gathered resources, while the charred wood spectrum shows a similar mix of oak, chestnut, and hickory.

    “However, the charred food remains demonstrate the same low-density mix of cultigens and gathered resources while the charred wood spectrum shows a similar mix of oak, chestnut, and hickory (fig.6).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The botanical remains document consumption of Old World and New World foods and the manor's need for firewood, while 17th-century texts provide information about production on the plantation.

    “The botanical remains document the consumption of Old World and New World foods and the manor 's need for firewood while 17th-century texts provide information about production on the plantation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    Despite systematic collection during five years of excavation at Sylvester Manor, plant food remains were sparse and their distribution patchy.

    “Despite systematic collection during the five years of excavation at the manor, the presence of plant food remains was sparse and their distribution patchy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning

    Records indicate that field crops and orchards were established on Shelter Island and that there was a substantial cider mill on the premises.

    “These records indicate that field crops and orchards were established on the island and that there was a substantial cider mill on the premises.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingcitation

    Nathaniel Sylvester mentions the cider mill and orchards to which he lays full claim because they were built with his own estate.

    “In addition to the livestock, pastures, a mill and meadows, Nathaniel mentions the cider mill and orchards to which he lays full claim because, he argued, they were”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites N.Sylvester 1680

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning

    Throughout the site, smaller features appear to contain fewer species and are dominated more strongly by oak and chestnut wood.

    “Throughout the site, these features appear to contain fewer species and are dominated more strongly by oak and chestnut wood (fig.7).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    The Sylvesters introduced wheat and peaches from Europe, but they also consumed maize, a crop associated with indigenous peoples.

    “The Sylvesters introduced wheat and peaches from Europe, but they also consumed maize, a crop associated with indigenous peoples.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The Sylvesters introduced wheat and peaches from Europe.
    • Rests on an assumption: Maize is a crop associated with indigenous peoples.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Weedy plants associated with agricultural fields such as goosefoot and purslane are suggestive of not only the consumption of maize on the island, but also its production.

    “Weedy plants associated with agricultural fields such as goosefoot and purslane are suggestive of not only the consumption of maize on the island, but also its production.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Maize is a crop associated with indigenous peoples.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    The food remains from the midden and larger features indicate the household consumed both European-introduced foods, wheat, and indigenous foods: maize and nuts.

    “The food remains, despite being few in number, do indicate the household consumed both Europeanintroduced foods, wheat, and indigenous foods: maize and nuts.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The Sylvesters introduced wheat and peaches from Europe.
    • Rests on an assumption: Maize is a crop associated with indigenous peoples.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The Sylvesters attempted to recreate familiar European food practices but were also willing to adopt New World foods associated with Native American cuisine.

    “It is clear that the Sylvesters attempted to recreate familiar European food practices, but they were also willing to adopt New World foods associated with Native American cuisine.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationcitation

    It is likely that the Sylvesters, like other settlers in the Northeast, had kitchen gardens for both food and medicines, although evidence for these is lacking.

    “It is also likely that the Sylvesters, like other settlers in the Northeast, had kitchen gardens for both food and medicines (Leighton 1970) although we lack evidence for these.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Leighton 1970

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    During the 1600s an average New England household burned an estimated 30 to 40 cords of wood per year, requiring the logging of more than an acre of forest each year.

    “During the 1600s an average household in New England burned an estimated 30 to 40 cords of wood per year, requiring the logging of more than an acre of forest each year (Cronon 1983).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cronon 1983

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    Archaeological materials suggest that the Sylvesters adopted some Native American food practices, and documents recount exchange of maize and cider between the Sylvesters and local Native Americans.

    “The archaeological materials suggest that the Sylvesters adopted some of the Native Americans' food practices, and documents recount the exchange of food products, maize and cider, between the Sylvesters and local Native Americans.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The local Manhansets' experience growing maize and knowledge of Shelter Island's weather and soils may have been a critical resource to the Sylvesters and assisted in producing crops that sustained the household.

    “The local Manhansets' experience growing maize and their knowledge of the weather and soils of Shelter Island may have been a critical resource to the Sylvesters and assisted in the successful production of crops that sustained the household.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    It is unlikely that there is evidence for the production of barrel staves at Sylvester Manor; documents suggest they were purchased from Connecticut.

    “It is unlikely that we have evidence for the production of barrel staves at Sylvester Manor, and indeed the documents suggest that they were not produced on the island, but were purchased from Connecticut.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The large proportion of oak in the deposits reflects both its value as fuel and its abundance on Shelter Island.

    “The large proportion of oak in the deposits no doubt reflects both its value as fuel and its abundance on the island.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationcitation

    The production of cider may account for some of the raspberry seeds found at Sylvester Manor, as raspberry is also used for cider-making.

    “The production of cider may also account for some of the raspberry seeds we found, as this fruit is also used for cider-making (Stephen Mrozowski personal communication 2005).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Stephen Mrozowski personal communication 2005

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    People do not randomly choose woods from those available; fuelwood choice intersects cultural and physical factors.

    “Peoples' choice of fuel wood is an intersection between cultural and physical factors, and although the abundance of a particular type of wood plays a factor in the frequency of its use, people do not randomly choose woods from those available (Smart and Hoffman 1988).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Smart and Hoffman 1988

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    The Sylvesters, along with Native Americans and Africans, cleared trees for timber and firewood, cleared land for crops, orchards, and kitchen gardens, and introduced Old World livestock.

    “The Sylvesters along with Native Americans and Africans cleared trees for timber and firewood, cleared land for planting crops, orchards and kitchen gardens, and introduced Old World livestock.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Charred hickory nutshell fragments may indicate that Native Americans produced foods for the Sylvesters, or that the Sylvesters adopted Native American processing practices.

    “The charred hickory nutshell fragments found in various areas of the site are suggestive of Native Americans' processing methods in pre-colonial times, and may indicate that Native Americans produced foods for the Sylvesters, or that the Sylvesters adopted these practices.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Native Americans cracked open hickory nutshells and boiled the nuts and shells together to release oils.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Hickory produces the greatest heat value of any common wood in the region, while oak is a strong second.

    “Hickory produces, by far, the greatest heat value of any common wood in the region, while oak is a strong second (Reynolds 1942), and these factors may underlie both the Native peoples' and Sylvesters' choices of fuelwood.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Reynolds 1942

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Other activities would have increased deforestation on Shelter Island.

    “However, other activities would have increased deforestation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Clearing by the Manhansets before the Sylvesters' arrival diminished available wood, and Native Americans settling around the manor also drew on these resources for fuel and raw materials.

    “Clearing by the Manhansets prior to the Sylvesters' arrival would have, of course, diminished the available wood, and the Native Americans settling around the manor would also have drawn on these resources for fuel and raw materials.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Native peoples had cleared areas of southern New England before Europeans arrived.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    Macrobotanical materials indicate a landscape transformed by plantation activities but not depleted of economically important plant taxa.

    “While the pollen analyses are in their initial stages, the macrobotanical materials indicate a landscape that was transformed by plantation activities but not depleted of economically important plant taxa.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    Cultivating Old World crops such as wheat not only supplied food to the Sylvesters but may have employed Native peoples to plow and reap.

    “Cultivating Old World crops, such as wheat, not only supplied food to the Sylvesters but may have employed Native peoples to plow and reap.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    It is likely that Nathaniel Sylvester modified European practices and, like many early colonial farmers, planted maize.

    “While he grew Eurasian crops such as wheat and apples, it is also likely that he modified the European practices, and like many early colonial farmers, planted maize.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Many European colonists quickly adopted and grew their own maize.
44 of 44

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Local Native Americans provided a source of labor for the production of crops.

    “Documents provide more robust information about the production of crops and interactions with Native peoples, suggesting that local Native Americans provided a source of labor for the production of crops.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Some land on the island had previously been cleared for firewood and to bring it under agricultural production.

    “Some land on the island had previously been cleared for firewood and to bring it under agricultural production.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Sylvesters introduced wheat and peaches from Europe.

    “The Sylvesters introduced wheat and peaches from Europe, but they also consumed maize, a crop associated with indigenous peoples.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Maize is a crop associated with indigenous peoples.

    “The Sylvesters introduced wheat and peaches from Europe, but they also consumed maize, a crop associated with indigenous peoples.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Native peoples commonly used goosefoot seeds for food.

    “Native peoples commonly used these seeds for food, but they are also encouraged in disturbed habitats.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Hickory nuts were important to Native peoples in the northeast.

    “Hickory nuts, in particular, were important to Native peoples in the northeast.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Native Americans cracked open hickory nutshells and boiled the nuts and shells together to release oils.

    “To produce a high calorie, nutritious oil, Native Americans would crack open hickory nutshells and then boil the nuts and shells together to release the oils.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Many European colonists quickly adopted and grew their own maize.

    “Many European colonists quickly adopted and grew their own maize, but documents indicate the Sylvesters purchased it from local Manhansets (N.Sylvester 1680), possibly to consume in the household or to feed their livestock.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Colonists preferred oak for many uses: lumber, fence posts, furniture, tools, as well as fuel.

    “The colonists preferred oak for many uses: lumber, fence posts, furniture, tools, as well as fuel.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    One strategy to bring land under cultivation was to first grow maize.

    “One strategy to bring land under cultivation was to first grow maize.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Planting maize required less preparation of the ground and was thought to break up the soil and make it easier to cultivate cereals such as wheat.

    “It required less preparation of the ground, and it was thought that planting maize broke up the soil and subsequently made it easier to cultivate cereals such as wheat.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Native peoples had cleared areas of southern New England before Europeans arrived.

    “This process started before Europeans arrived, and early travelers remarked that Native peoples had cleared areas of southern New England.”
12 of 12

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Midden nutshell count differs from Table 1

    Minor

    The midden description reports 10 nutshell and nutmeat fragments, while the Midden row of Table 1 reports 12 under Nut/Nutshell.

1 of 1

Citations

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 3

  1. Bendremer, Jeffrey 1999 Changing Strategies in the Pre-and Post- Contact Subsistence Systems of Southern N e w E n g l a n d : A r c h a e o l o g i c a l a n d Ethnohistoric Evidence. In Current Northeast Paleoethnobotany, ed. by John P. Hart, 133- 155. New York State Museum Bulletin No. 494. New York.
  2. Bernstein, David 1999 Prehistoric Use of Plant Foods on Long Island and Block Island Sounds. In Current Northeast Paleoethnobotany, ed. by John P. Hart, 101-119. New York State Museum Bulletin No. 494. New York.
  3. Reynolds, R.V 1942 Fuel Wood Used in the United States 1630 to 1930. United States Department of Agriculture Circular No. 641, Washington, D.C. Scarry, C. Margaret 2003 Patterns of Wild Plant Utilization in the Prehistoric Eastern Woodlands. In People and Plants in Ancient Eastern North America, ed. by Paul Minnis, 50-104. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Smart, Tristine and Ellen Hoffman 1988 E n v i r o n m e n t a l I : Analytical Methods and Cultural Interpretations of Archaeological Plant Remains, ed. by Christine Hastorf and Virginia Popper, 167-205. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

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Metadata

Authors
Trigg, H., & Leasure, A.
Affiliations
Buffalo State University (US)
Venue
Northeast Historical Archaeology
Publisher
Binghamton University
Published
2007
Volume
36
Issue
1
Pages
113-126
ISSN
0048-0738 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.22191/neha/vol36/iss1/10
OpenAlex
W1492190149
Cited by
7
References
8
Citations by year
2025: 1 · 2022: 1 · 2020: 1 · 2018: 1 · 2015: 1
FWCI
1.51
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Northeast Historical Archaeology (publishedVersion)
  • The Open Repository - Binghamton (Binghamton University) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Archeology › Archaeology and ancient environmental studies
  • Social Sciences › Anthropology › Historical and Cultural Archaeology Studies
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Amazonian Archaeology and Ethnohistory
Keywords
archaeobotany, cider, wheat, maize, firewood, Native American labor, crop production

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-08, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).

A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-08 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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