Holism and Reductionism in Evolutionary Ecology
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Phenotypic properties of organisms are caused by selection and merely permitted by heritable variation.
“The phenotypic properties of organisms are caused by selection and merely permitted by heritable variation (Campbell 1990; Wilson 1988).”
From Evolving the future: Toward a science of intentional change (2014) · cites this paper as Wilson 1988
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Pattern and Process in Macroecology
Gaston, K. J., & Blackburn, T. M. (2000) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470999592 · Cited by 1,572 · see citing works
Reintroducing group selection to the human behavioral sciences
Wilson, D. S., & Sober, E. R. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036104 · Cited by 955 · see citing works
Self-citationGeographic gradients in body size: a clarification of Bergmann's rule
Blackburn, T. M., Gaston, K. J., & Loder, N. (1999) · Diversity and Distributions · doi:10.1046/j.1472-4642.1999.00046.x · Cited by 921 · see citing works
“Again, this hypothesis is rendered unlikely by the phylogenetically controlled analyses forectotherms, but as has been argued before (Wilson, 1988; Warren & Gaston, 1992; Blackburn & Gaston, birds, amphipods and isopods that show evidence for Bergmann’s rule (Poulin, 1995; Poulin & Hamilton,1996b;…”
Abundance–occupancy relationships
Gaston, K., Blackburn, T., Greenwood, J., Gregory, R., Quinn, R. M., & Lawton, J. (2000) · Journal of Applied Ecology · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2664.2000.00485.x · Cited by 854 · see citing works
A new model for the continuum concept
Austin, M. P., & Smith, T. M. (1989) · Plant Ecology · doi:10.1007/bf00031679 · Cited by 493 · see citing works
Macrophysiology: A Conceptual Reunification
Gaston, K. J., Chown, S. L., Calosi, P., Bernardo, J., Bilton, D. T., Clarke, A., Clusella‐Trullas, S., Ghalambor, C. K., Konarzewski, M., Peck, L. S., et al. (2009) · The American Naturalist · doi:10.1086/605982 · Cited by 371 · see citing works
Evolving the future: Toward a science of intentional change
Wilson, D. S., Hayes, S. C., Biglan, A., & Embry, D. D. (2014) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x13001593 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
Self-citationGaston, K., & Blackburn, T. (1999) · Oikos · doi:10.2307/3546417 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
A Critical Review of Philosophical Work on the Units of Selection Problem
Sober, E., & Wilson, D. (1994) · Philosophia Scientiæ · doi:10.1086/289821 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Self-citationEvolving the future: Toward a science of intentional change
Wilson, D. S., Hayes, S. C., Biglan, A., & Embry, D. D. (2014) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x13003154 · Cited by 202
Self-citationWilson, R. A. (2004) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511807381 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Hierarchical approaches to ecosystem theory
Müller, F. (1992) · doi:10.1016/0304-3800(92)90070-u · Cited by 108
Scheiner, S. M., & Willig, M. R. (2011) · University of Chicago Press eBooks · doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226736877.001.0001 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Frpm artificial individuals to global patterns.
Kawata, M., & Toquenaga, Y. (1994) · Trends in Ecology & Evolution · doi:10.1016/0169-5347(94)90123-6 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Dawkins, R. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036207 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Holism and reductionism in ecology: hypotheses, scale and systems models
Wiegert, R. (1988) · doi:10.2307/3566072 · Cited by 41
The synergistic effects of reductionist and holistic approaches in animal ecology
Lidlicker, W. Z. (1988) · doi:10.2307/3566076 · Cited by 36
Habitat Templets and the Changing Worldview of Ecology
Korfiatis, K., & Stamou, G. (1999) · Biology & Philosophy · doi:10.1023/a:1006543127454 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Estimating the masses and centers of mass of extinct animals by 3-D mathematical slicing
Henderson, D. M. (1999) · Paleobiology · doi:10.1666/0094-8373(1999)025 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Relevance of Systems Thinking and Scientific Holism to Social Entrepreneurship
Trivedi, C., & Misra, S. (2015) · The Journal of Entrepreneurship · doi:10.1177/0971355714560658 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“Social problems are a type of social system (Wilson, 1988):”
BackgroundBiological Diversity, Ecological Stability, and Downward Causation
Mikkelson, G. M. (2004) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511498527.006 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Explanation and prediction in vegetation science
Wiegleb, G. (1989) · Vegetatio · doi:10.1007/bf00031678 · Cited by 19
“Both mechanistic and descriptive holism (Wilson 1988) have to be included here.”
BackgroundTheory and model or art and technology in ecology
Ågren, G., & Bosatta, E. (1990) · Ecological Modelling · doi:10.1016/0304-3800(90)90051-h · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Rethinking the Theoretical Foundation of Economics I: The Multilevel Paradigm
Wilson, D. S., & Snower, D. J. (2024) · Economics · doi:10.1515/econ-2022-0070 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationFoguelman, D., Henning, P., Uhrmacher, A., & Castro, R. (2021) · Journal of Computational Science · doi:10.1016/j.jocs.2021.101387 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Replicators and vehicles? Or developmental systems?
Griffiths, P. E., & Gray, R. D. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036281 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Adaptation and natural selection: A new look at some old ideas
Simpson, J. A. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036402 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Hominids, coalitions, and weapons: Not vehicles
Moore, J. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036372 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Cronk, L. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036189 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Reductionist Approaches in Community Ecology
Inchausti, P. (1994) · American Naturalist · doi:10.1086/285601 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Reintroducing Pierre Teilhard de Chardin to modern evolutionary science
Wilson, D. (2023) · Religion, Brain & Behavior · doi:10.1080/2153599x.2022.2143399 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“This is called “ downward causation ” (Campbell, 1990) and it provides a rock-solid foundation for the holistic claim that “ the parts permit but do not cause the properties of the whole ” (Wilson, 1988).”
BackgroundSelf-citationWhy is group selection such a problem?
Nesse, R. M. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036384 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Group evolutionary strategies: Dimensions and mechanisms
MacDonald, K. B. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036359 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Dennett, D. C. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036219 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Holism and reductionism in community ecology
Redfield, G. (1988) · doi:10.2307/3566075 · Cited by 10
“The persons interviewed seemed less comfortable discussing holism than reductionism; Wilson (1988) examines ambiguity in our definitions of holism.”
BackgroundNielsen, S. N. (2018) · Ecological Indicators · doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2018.04.062 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Group selection: The theory replaces the bogey man
Wilson, D. S., & Sober, E. R. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x0003644x · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationAmbivalently held group-optimizing predispositions
Campbell, D. T., & Gatewood, J. B. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036165 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Organismic” positions in early German-speaking ecology and its (almost) forgotten dissidents
Jax, K. (2020) · History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences · doi:10.1007/s40656-020-00328-9 · Cited by 7
“On the different uses of "holistic" within contemporary ecology, see e.g. Wilson (1988).”
BackgroundMethodWilson, R. A. (2004) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511807381.001
Me, you, and us: Distinguishing “egoism,” “altruism,” and “groupism”
Gilbert, M. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036256 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Jorge, J. S., Santos, R. L., Monte, O. D. S., Freire, E. M., & Caliman, A. (2024) · Neotropical Entomology · doi:10.1007/s13744-024-01145-6 · Cited by 4
“Understanding the patterns of diversity is an important goal in ecological studies, with significant implications for bio-diversity conservation (Wilson 1988).”
Why Ecology and Evolution Occupy Distinct Epistemic Niches
Linquist, S. (2020) · Philosophical Topics · doi:10.5840/philtopics20194718 · Cited by 4
Lira, A., & Tizo-Pedroso, E. (2017) · doi:10.4025/actascibiolsci.v39i4.36373 · Cited by 4
“Phoretic association can be an important attribute for arthropod communities (involving mites, pseudoscorpions, nematodes, fungi, and microorganisms) that depend on ephemeral and patch habitats like decaying trees, contributing to increased community complexity (Wilson, 1988).”
BackgroundConscious evolution of the noösphere: hubris or necessity?
Deacon, T. (2023) · Religion, Brain & Behavior · doi:10.1080/2153599x.2022.2143409 · Cited by 3
Reconstructing the real unit of selection
Heschl, A. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036293 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Semantics, theory, and methodological individualism in the group-selection controversy
Smith, E. A. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036414 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
A Few Theses Regarding the Inner Structure of Ecology
Wiegleb, G. (2011) · doi:10.1007/978-90-481-9744-6_7 · Cited by 3
Genes and the Agents of Life: Notes
Wilson, R. A. (2004) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511807381.011 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Wang, Q.-G., Xing, Y., Zhou, X.-F., & Han, S.-J. (2006) · Journal of Forest Research · doi:10.1007/s11676-006-0066-5 · Cited by 2
“Scientists estimate that there are about 1.4 millions species on earth, including 750 000 insects, 41 000 vertebrates, and 360 000 plants (Willson 1988).”
BackgroundInfluentialCrow, J. F. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036190 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Putting the cart back behind the horse: Group selection does not require that groups be “organisms”
Grantham, T. A. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x0003627x · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Contextual analysis and group selection
Goodnight, C. J. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036268 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The consequences of group selection in a domain without genetic input: Culture
Brace, C. L. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x0003613x · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Thompson, N. S. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036426 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Alroy, J., & Levine, A. L. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036116 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Empirically equivalent theories
Holcomb, H. R. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x0003630x · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Subtle ways of shifting the balance in favor of between-group selection
Dugatkin, L. A. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036220 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Metaphors and mechanisms in vehicle-based selection theory
Bradie, M. P. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036141 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Wilson, R. A. (2007) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-044451543-8/50010-1 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Wilson, R. A. (2004) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511807381.003 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Unnecessary competition requirement makes group selection harder to demonstrate
Cloak, F. T. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036177
Nongenetic and non-Darwinian evolution
Rapoport, A. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036396
The maintenance of behavioral diversity in human societies
Wills, C. J. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036438
Different vehicles for group selection in humans
Hyland, M. E. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036335 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Groups as vehicles and replicators: The problem of group-level adaptation
Holsinger, K. E. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036311 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Some philosophical implications of the rehabilitation of group selection
Dupré, J. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036232
Rx: Distinguish group selection from group adaptation
Lloyd, E. A. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00036347 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Lin, J.-H., Quan, Y.-B., & Han, B.-P. (2024) · Ecological Modelling · doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2024.110730
Dussault, A. C. (2026) · Cahiers François Viète · doi:10.4000/15rsj
Charles Darwin: Reductionist, holist, or both?
Janković, S. (2025) · Belgrade Philosophical Annual · doi:10.5937/bpa2502007j
Work, Money and Duality: References
Gaston, K. J., & Blackburn, T. (2022) · Work, Money and Duality · doi:10.2307/j.ctv1ns7mmf.16
Social Structures and Natural Systems: References
Guille‐Escuret, G. (2018) · Social Structures and Natural Systems · doi:10.1002/9781119423058.refs
Meta-philosophical Preliminaries
Kaiser, M. I. (2015) · History, philosophy and theory of the life sciences · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-25310-7_2
The Ontic Account of Explanatory Reduction
Kaiser, M. I. (2015) · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-25310-7_6
Wilson, R. A. (2004) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511807381.005
Arguing about Group Selection: The Myxoma Case
Wilson, R. A. (2004) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511807381.009
Thinking about Biological Agents
Wilson, R. A. (2004) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511807381.002
Wilson, R. A. (2004) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511807381.008
Wilson, R. A. (2004) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511807381.004
Pluralism, Entwinement, and the Agents of Selection
Wilson, R. A. (2004) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511807381.010
- Authors
- Wilson, D. S.
- Corresponding author
- Wilson, David Sloan
- ORCID
- Wilson, David Sloan
- Venue
- Oikos
- Publisher
- JSTOR
- Published
- 1988-09
- Volume
- 53
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 269
- ISSN
- 0030-1299 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2313780608
- Cited by
- 95
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2025: 1 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 1 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 1 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 1 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 1
- FWCI
- 13.52
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Oikos (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › Philosophy and History of Science
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Nature and Landscape Conservation › Ecology and Vegetation Dynamics Studies
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Evolution and Genetic Dynamics
- Keywords
- holism, reductionism, evolutionary ecology, ecological theory, levels of organization
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