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Cited by 259Language and cultural evolutionEvolutionary Psychology and Human BehaviorPhilosophy and History of Science

Evolving the future: Toward a science of intentional change

Open access
Wilson, David Sloan, Hayes, Steven C., Biglan, Anthony, Embry, Dennis D.·2014·Behavioral and Brain Sciences
DOI 10.1017/s0140525x13001593PMC PMC4331065
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Abstract

Humans possess great capacity for behavioral and cultural change, but our ability to manage change is still limited. This article has two major objectives: first, to sketch a basic science of intentional change centered on evolution; second, to provide examples of intentional behavioral and cultural change from the applied behavioral sciences, which are largely unknown to the basic scientific community. All species have evolved mechanisms of phenotypic plasticity that enable them to respond adaptively to their environments. Some mechanisms of phenotypic plasticity count as evolutionary processes in their own right. The human capacity for symbolic thought provides an inheritance system with the same kind of combinatorial diversity as genetic recombination and antibody formation. Taking these propositions seriously allows an integration of major traditions within the basic behavioral sciences, such as behaviorism, social constructivism, social psychology, cognitive psychology, and evolutionary psychology, which are often isolated and even conceptualized as opposed to each other. The applied behavioral sciences include well-validated examples of successfully managing behavioral and cultural change at scales ranging from individuals, to small groups, to large populations. However, these examples are largely unknown beyond their disciplinary boundaries, for lack of a unifying theoretical framework. Viewed from an evolutionary perspective, they are examples of managing evolved mechanisms of phenotypic plasticity, including open-ended processes of variation and selection. Once the many branches of the basic and applied behavioral sciences become conceptually unified, we are closer to a science of intentional change than one might think. Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014.

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Registry

Crossref · 10.1017/s0140525x13001593

Cites

653 of 653 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

37 of 205 cited sources checked · 15 supported · 2 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Cultural transmission exists in many species.

    “The capacity for cultural transmission also exists in many species – more than one might imagine, as it is a relatively new topic in animal behavior research (Hill 2010; Laland & Galef 2009; Laland & Hoppitt 2003; Page & Ryan 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Hill 2010 source

      The Conclusion says that some animals pass behavioral traditions between generations, but “they do not transmit cultural content.” In “Experimental and Statistical Techniques to Detect Social Learning” (page unavailable), Hill argues that animal traditions are building blocks of culture rather than culture itself. This contrasts with the claim that cultural transmission exists in many species. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Laland & Galef 2009

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Laland & Hoppitt 2003 source
  • Interpretationcitation

    A science of change can occur only when the distinction between evolutionary psychology and the standard social science model is depolarized.

    “Only when we depolarize the distinction between EP and the SSSM can a science of change occur (Bolhuis et al. 2011; Buller 2005; Scher & Rauscher 2002; Wilson 2002b).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bolhuis et al. 2011 source

      In “Towards a New Science of the Evolution of the Mind” (page unavailable), the paper calls for methodological and conceptual integration of evolutionary psychology with adjacent fields. Its Conclusions likewise advocate a broader, multidisciplinary approach. It does not say that depolarizing the distinction between EP and the standard social science model is the only way a science of change can occur. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Buller 2005 source
    • cites Scher & Rauscher 2002

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Premisecitation

    Taste aversion challenged the idea that immediacy is key in classical conditioning stimulus pairings.

    “For example, taste aversion (Garcia et al. 1966) challenged the idea that immediacy per se is key in stimulus pairings in classical conditioning, as illness could follow by tens of hours and still induce aversion to ecologically sensible food-related cues.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Garcia et al. 1966 source

      The introduction says that immediate reinforcement is not required for all learning, and the Results and Discussion report taste aversion after delayed drug injections. This supports the challenge to immediacy, but the reported significant effect extends to 75 minutes, not the citing sentence’s “tens of hours.” The discussion mentions other avoidance responses developing hours after ingestion, without establishing that duration for this experiment. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Many human traits can change only by genetic evolution, such as the ability to digest lactose in adults.

    “Many human traits can change only by genetic evolution (e.g., the ability to digest lactose in adults; Holden & Mace 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Holden & Mace 2009 source
  • Premisecitation

    Behaviorism did not disappear after the cognitive revolution; it developed into robust methods for behavioral change in applied disciplines such as applied behavior analysis and behavior therapy.

    “When the cognitive revolution dethroned behaviorism in academic psychology during the second half of the 20th century, behaviorism did not disappear. Instead, it developed into a robust set of methods for accomplishing behavioral change in a variety of applied disciplines such as applied behavior analysis (Baer et al. 1968) and behavior therapy (Wolpe 1958).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Baer et al. 1968 source
    • cites Wolpe 1958 source
  • May combine two claims. 110
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 101

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    Premisecitation

    In a longitudinal study that began in the 1980s in the Baltimore City School District, the GBG was implemented in the first and second grades for some classrooms but not others, in a randomized controlled design; no intervention took place after the second grade.

    “In a longitudinal study that began in the 1980s in the Baltimore City School District, the GBG was implemented in the first and second grades for some classrooms but not others, in a randomized controlled design. No intervention took place after the second grade.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bradshaw et al. 2009 source

      The Prior Research section dates this Baltimore City trial to the 1993–1994 school year, not the 1980s. Method > Study Design confirms that classrooms were randomized, but says the interventions were implemented only in first grade, not in both first and second grades. It also says the Good Behavior Game was part of the classroom-centered intervention, rather than a stand-alone intervention in this trial. (LLM, conf=0.89)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Kellam et al. 2008 source

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    Premisecitation

    Behavior therapy was supplemented by cognitive therapy, which was supplemented by acceptance and mindfulness-based techniques with proven efficacy, forming a third wave of cognitive behavioral methods.

    “Behavior therapy was gradually supplemented (not replaced) by cognitive therapy, which in turn has been supplemented (not replaced) by acceptance and mindfulness–based techniques with proven efficacy (Hayes et al. 2011b; Hofmann et al. 2010), in what is sometimes called a “third wave” of cognitive behavioral methods (Hayes 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Hayes et al. 2011b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Hofmann et al. 2010 source

      The Results report improvements in anxiety and mood symptoms with mindfulness-based therapy, supporting the mindfulness-efficacy part of the cited phrase. The Discussion says the review excluded Acceptance and Commitment Therapy from its analyses, so it does not establish the efficacy of acceptance-based techniques. The historical progression and “third wave” label are attached to other citations in the sentence. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Hayes 2004 source

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    Premisecitation

    Focusing on chosen values as selection criteria for action can empower people to confront their anxieties, face the challenges of chronic illness, or create lives in the face of chronic pain.

    “Focusing on chosen values as the selection criteria for action can empower people to confront their anxieties (Roemer et al. 2008), face the challenges of chronic illness (Lundgren et al. 2008), or create lives in the face of chronic pain (Vowles & McCracken 2008).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Roemer et al. 2008 source
    • cites Lundgren et al. 2008 source
    • cites Vowles & McCracken 2008 source

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    Premisecitation

    Research shows that cognitive elements alone are helpful, improving outcomes because of how patients appraise their symptoms.

    “Research shows that just these cognitive elements alone are helpful, resulting in improved outcomes because of how patients appraise their symptoms (Meuret et al. 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Meuret et al. 2010 source

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    Premisecitation

    Embry and Biglan (2008) compiled a list of more than 50 evidence-based kernels.

    “Embry and Biglan (2008) compiled a list of more than 50 evidence-based kernels (see Table 1 for a sample)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Embry & Biglan 2008 source

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    Premisecitation

    Extreme child abuse is the tip of an iceberg of parenting practices that harm children's short- and long-term welfare and lead to depression, academic failure, teenage pregnancy, obesity, substance abuse, and crime.

    “Extreme child abuse is the tip of an iceberg of parenting practices that harm not just the short-term but the long-term welfare of children, resulting in depression, academic failure, teenage pregnancy, obesity, substance abuse, and crime—generically called Adverse Childhood Experiences, made famous by the studies of middle-class persons enrolled in Kaiser Permanente (Anda, Brown, Felitti, Dube, &”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Anda, Brown, Felitti, Dube, & Giles, 2008 source

      The Background (Table 1; page not available) reports associations between adverse childhood experiences and depression, teen pregnancy, obesity, and alcohol or illicit drug use. The Methods define ACEs to include abuse and household dysfunction, and identify the participants as Kaiser Permanente members. The paper does not report academic failure or crime as outcomes, establish short-term harms, or show that the listed outcomes were caused by parenting practices. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Anda, Butchart, Felitti, & Brown, 2010 source

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    Premisecitation

    In high school, GBG students scored higher on standardized achievement tests, had a greater chance of graduating and attending college, and had a reduced need for special education services.

    “In high school, they scored higher on standardized achievement tests, had a greater chance of graduating and attending college, and had a reduced need for special education services.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bradshaw et al. 2009 source

      The Conclusions and Implications section reports all four outcomes, but for the classroom-centered (CC) intervention, which combined the Good Behavior Game (GBG) with an enhanced academic curriculum. The Discussion says the study cannot determine GBG’s independent contribution. The Results also measure special education service use across Grades 1–12, not specifically in high school. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Kellam et al. 2008 source

      The Results (section 3.7; page unavailable) report somewhat higher high-school graduation rates among GBG youth, but say the overall difference was not statistically significant. The Methods (sections 2.3.2 and 2.4; pages unavailable) mention college attendance and standardized achievement measures, but the passages do not report higher high-school test scores or greater college attendance for GBG youth. A search for special education found only a description of which first-grade classrooms were eligible for the trial, not a reduction in students’ need for services. (LLM, conf=0.89)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In college, GBG students had a reduced risk for suicidal ideation, lower rates of antisocial personality disorder, and lower rates of violent and criminal behavior.

    “In college, they had a reduced risk for suicidal ideation, lower rates of antisocial personality disorder, and lower rates of violent and criminal behavior.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bradshaw et al. 2009 source

      The Discussion (page not provided) reports improved educational outcomes through age 19, not reduced suicidal ideation, antisocial personality disorder, or violent and criminal behavior among GBG students in college. Searches for those outcomes found only background and Methods passages about predictors of later antisocial behavior and crime, not intervention effects on the claimed outcomes. (LLM, conf=0.76)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Kellam et al. 2008 source

      The Discussion reports a GBG impact on suicidal ideation and describes reductions in violent and criminal behavior; Table 10 reports lower ASPD rates for GBG participants than controls. But the Methods (§2.3, page unavailable) describe follow-up of young adults aged 19–21, not outcomes specifically among students in college. The overall ASPD comparison in Table 10 is also not statistically significant (p = 0.07), although the comparison for highly aggressive, disruptive participants is (p = 0.02). (LLM, conf=0.89)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    By the sixth grade, students from the GBG classrooms were less likely to be diagnosed with conduct disorder, to have been suspended from school, or to be judged in need of mental health services.

    “By the sixth grade, students from the GBG classrooms were less likely to be diagnosed with conduct disorder, to have been suspended from school, or to be judged in need of mental health services.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bradshaw et al. 2009 source

      The Prior Research section reports all three sixth-grade outcomes, but for children assigned to the classroom-centered (CC) intervention, which combined the Good Behavior Game with an enhanced academic curriculum. The Discussion says the study cannot determine the Good Behavior Game’s independent contribution, so attributing those outcomes to GBG alone overstates the source. (LLM, conf=0.91)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Kellam et al. 2008 source

      The Introduction (§1.1; page unavailable) reports lower antisocial behavior by middle school, but not sixth-grade conduct-disorder diagnoses, suspensions, or judgments of need for mental health services. Searches for those specific outcomes found no passage in our copy that addresses the claim; the paper says its own focus is young-adult outcomes. (LLM, conf=0.74)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Two years after the start of the study, counties that did not receive Triple P showed large increases in substantiated child abuse, out-of-home placements due to child abuse, and hospital-reported child injuries.

    “Two years after the start of the study, the counties that did not receive the program showed large increases in substantiated child abuse, out-of-home placements due to child abuse problems, and increases in hospital-reported child injuries.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Prinz et al. 2009 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Counties that received Triple P performed significantly better on all three measures: fewer abused children, fewer out-of-home placements, and fewer hospitalizations.

    “However, the counties that got Triple P performed significantly better on all three measures: Fewer children were abused, as indicated by both substantiated maltreatment and hospital reports of injuries due to abuse, and fewer children went into foster care.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Prinz et al. 2009 source

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    Premisecitation

    Prinz, Sanders, and colleagues tested Triple P in 18 South Carolina counties and showed for the first time that it is possible to prevent child abuse in entire populations.

    “Prinz, Sanders, and colleagues (2009) tested Triple P in 18 South Carolina counties and showed for the first time that it is possible to prevent child abuse in entire populations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Prinz et al. 2009 source

      The Abstract reports a trial in 18 counties and calls it the first to show a preventive impact on child maltreatment at the population level; the Discussion reports improvements in three population indicators. The Method (Design) identifies the location only as “a southeastern state,” not South Carolina, so our copy does not support that geographic detail. It also specifies that Triple P was implemented in nine counties, with the other nine serving as controls. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    In the Triple P trial, 9 counties were randomized to receive the intervention and 9 to receive no intervention.

    “They randomized 9 counties to receive the intervention and 9 to receive no intervention.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Prinz et al. 2009 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    For a community with 100,000 children, the Triple P differences translate into 688 fewer cases of child abuse, 240 fewer out-of-home placements, and 60 fewer children needing hospitalization.

    “Prinz et al. (2009) point out that for a community with 100,000 children, the differences translate into 688 fewer cases of child abuse, 240 fewer out-of-home placements, and 60 fewer children needing hospitalization.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Prinz et al. 2009 source

      The Discussion gives all three figures, but specifies a community with 100,000 children under age 8, not children of any age. It also describes the 60 as children with injuries requiring hospitalization or emergency-room treatment, rather than hospitalization alone. Page numbers are not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationcitation

    The only solution to unmanaged evolutionary processes is to become wise managers of evolutionary processes.

    “The only solution to this problem is to become wise managers of evolutionary processes (Wilson 2011c).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wilson 2011c

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    All species have evolved phenotypic plasticity mechanisms that allow adaptive responses to their environments.

    “All species have evolved mechanisms of phenotypic plasticity that enable them to respond adaptively to their environments.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Evolution must be central to any science of behavioral and cultural change.

    “We begin with the basic suggestion that evolution must be at the center of any science of change.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The applied behavioral sciences contain well-validated examples of managing behavioral and cultural change at individual, small-group, and large-population scales.

    “The applied behavioral sciences include well-validated examples of successfully managing behavioral and cultural change at scales ranging from individuals to small groups to large populations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Evolution studies how organisms change in relation to environments through genetics and through evolved phenotypic plasticity, some of which are evolutionary processes.

    “evolution is the study of how organisms change in relation to their environments, not only by genetics but also by mechanisms of phenotypic plasticity that evolved by genetic evolution, including some that count as evolutionary processes in their own right”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Calvin 1987 source
    • cites Jablonka & Lamb 2006 source
    • cites Richerson & Boyd 2005

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    A fully rounded evolutionary perspective requires attention to functional design, proximate mechanisms, developmental pathways, and phylogenetic histories.

    “A fully rounded evolutionary perspective requires equal attention to functional design, proximate mechanisms, developmental pathways, and phylogenetic histories (Tinbergen 1963).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Tinbergen 1963 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The immune system has hallmarks of massive modularity and an open-ended capacity to evolve new antibody defenses.

    “It has many hallmarks of massive modularity, but it also has the open-ended capacity to rapidly evolve new defenses in the form of antibodies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    These two facts often appear opposed as if evolution implies genetic determinism and incapacity for short-term change.

    “These two facts often appear in opposition to each other, as if evolution implies genetic determinism, which in turn implies an incapacity for change over short time intervals.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Skinner regarded open-ended behavioral and cultural change as both a product of genetic evolution and an evolutionary process in its own right.

    “Skinner’s passage leaves no doubt that he regarded the open-ended capacity for behavioral and cultural change as both (1) a product of genetic evolution and (2) an evolutionary process in its own right.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Skinner 1981 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    This opposition is a profound mistake that must be corrected for an integrated science of change.

    “In our opinion, this is a profound mistake needing correction to achieve an integrated science of change.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These points apply to learning and culture as well as genetic evolution.

    “These points apply to learning and culture as well as genetic evolution.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The human brain is an elaborate product of genetic evolution.

    “On the other, as with all species, the human brain is an elaborate product of genetic evolution.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The human brain is an elaborate product of genetic evolution.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Tooby and Cosmides could be correct about massive modularity yet wrong to reject the blank slate assumption for learning and culture if massive modularity leads to nongenetic inheritance.

    “Tooby and Cosmides could be correct about massive modularity and still would be wrong to reject the blank slate assumption for learning and culture – insofar as massive modularity leads to nongenetic mechanisms of inheritance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Macrophages can sense and engulf foreign particles but cannot change their sensory abilities.

    “Macrophages can sense and engulf foreign particles, for example, but they have no capacity to change their sensory abilities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Evolutionary processes relying on nongenetic inheritance either evolved genetically or were created by humans.

    “Evolutionary processes that rely on nongenetic inheritance mechanisms either evolved genetically or were created by humans, as Skinner appreciated in the abstract quotes above.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Skinner 1981 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Cognitive theorists argued that the mind's complexity required direct study, unlike Skinner's focus on environment-behavior functional relations.

    “Cognitive theorists stressed that the enormous complexity of the mind needed direct study, in contrast to Skinner’s insistence on focusing on the functional relations of environment and behavior (Brewer 1974; Bruner 1973).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Brewer 1974

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Bruner 1973

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Genetic evolution is domain-general, but genetic inheritance mechanisms are many and specific.

    “Genetic evolution is a domain-general process, but the mechanisms of genetic inheritance are many and specific in their functions (e.g., error correction mechanisms, transcription mechanisms).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The practical ability to change behavioral and cultural practices can benefit from a basic scientific understanding of behavioral and cultural change.

    “The ability to change behavioral and cultural practices in practical terms can profit from a basic scientific understanding of behavioral and cultural change.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Core evolutionary theory needs to expand beyond genetics to include epigenetics, social learning, and symbolic thought.

    “core evolutionary theory needs to expand beyond genetics to include other inheritance systems, such as environmentally induced changes in gene expression (epigenetics), mechanisms of social learning found in many species, and the human capacity for symbolic thought that results in an almost unlimited variety of cognitive constructions, each motivating a suite of behaviors subject to selection (Jab”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Jablonka & Lamb 2006 source
    • cites Penn et al. 2008 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Integration between evolutionary theory and human-related disciplines must be two-way.

    “This integration needs to be a two-way street, involving not only contributions of evolutionary theory to the human-related disciplines but also the reverse.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Immunologists distinguish innate and adaptive components of the immune system.

    “Immunologists distinguish between the innate and the adaptive components of the immune system (see Sompayrac 2008 for an excellent tutorial).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sompayrac 2008

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Tooby and Cosmides praised genetic evolution as domain-general but failed to generalize this to other evolutionary processes.

    “Ironically, although Tooby and Cosmides praised genetic evolution as a domain-general process, capable of adapting organisms to virtually any environment, they failed to generalize this insight to include other evolutionary processes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Heritable variation is not omnipresent and sufficient generations often have not elapsed for full adaptation.

    “Evolutionists know that heritable variation is not omnipresent and a sufficient number of generations often has not elapsed for species to become fully adapted to their environments.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The concept of elaborate innateness associated with evolutionary psychology opposed the open-ended capacity for change associated with the standard social science model.

    “In this fashion, the concept of elaborate innateness that became associated with EP sat in opposition to the open-ended capacity for change that became associated with what Tooby and Cosmides branded the SSSM.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Once this misformulation is accepted, short-term change capacity is conceptualized as outside evolutionary theory.

    “Once this misformulation is accepted, then the capacity for short-term change becomes conceptualized as outside the orbit of evolutionary theory.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Properly understood, the term 'Darwin machine' reconciles genetic innateness with open-ended short-term change.

    “Properly understood, these two words reconcile the apparent paradox of genetic innateness and the capacity for open-ended change over the short term.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    An enormous amount of integration is needed before a science of human behavioral and cultural change can center on evolution.

    “As a result, an enormous amount of integration must occur before a science of human behavioral and cultural change can center on evolution.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    A mature evolutionary psychology needs to include elements of the standard social science model associated with Durkheim, Skinner, and Geertz.

    “A mature EP needs to include elements of the SSSM associated with major thinkers such as Emile Durkheim, B. F. Skinner, and Clifford Geertz.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning

    The cognitive revolution's central metaphor was that the mind is like a computer whose mechanisms must be understood.

    “The central metaphor of the cognitive revolution was that the mind is like a computer that we must understand in mechanistic detail to know how it works.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationcitation

    The polarized distinction between evolutionary psychology and the standard social science model was a wrong turn that must be corrected.

    “In particular, the polarized distinction between evolutionary psychology and the standard social science model (Pinker 1997; 2002; Tooby & Cosmides 1992) was a wrong turn we must correct.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Pinker 1997; 2002

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Tooby & Cosmides 1992 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Durkheim perceived cultural evolution similarly, writing that individual natures are indeterminate material molded by social factors.

    “This is also what Durkheim (tr. 1982) perceived for cultural evolution when he wrote in 1895 that “individual natures are merely the indeterminate material that the social factor molds and transforms” (p. 106).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Durkheim (tr. 1982)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Blank slate adaptationist reasoning remains one of the most powerful tools in evolutionary biology.

    “Nevertheless, blank slate adaptationist reasoning remains one of the most powerful tools in the evolutionary toolkit, and Tooby and Cosmides use it liberally to develop their vision of EP.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Human behavior and culture appear elaborately flexible.

    “On the one hand, human behavior and culture appear elaborately flexible.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Seligman reviewed evidence that learning parameters depend on organisms' evolutionary preparedness to relate particular events.

    “Seligman reviewed a body of evidence showing that the parameters of learning processes had to be viewed in light of the evolutionary preparedness of organisms to relate particular events.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Seligman 1970 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    This distinctiveness might be because human capacity requires teamwork among group members that most other vertebrate species lack.

    “This might be because the human capacity requires a degree of teamwork among group members that most other vertebrate species lack.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Higher-order symbolic relations are abstracted from immediate physical properties, become somewhat independent of them, and are maintained by their utility, coherence, and social role.

    “These higher-order relations are abstracted from immediate physical properties, becoming somewhat independent of them, and once established are maintained by their utility, coherence, and role in a social community.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Humans possess a full symbolic inheritance system whose combinatorial possibilities rival genetic inheritance, although rudiments of symbolic thought may exist in other species.

    “Humans are most distinctive in their capacity for symbolic thought. The rudiments of symbolic thought might exist in other species, but humans possess a full-blown inheritance system with combinatorial possibilities to rival genetic inheritance”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Deacon 1998

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Jablonka & Lamb 2006 source
    • cites Pagel 2012

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Evolutionary scientists might be surprised to learn of proven methods for accomplishing positive behavioral and cultural change at scales from individuals to large populations.

    “Evolutionary scientists might be surprised to learn of proven methods for accomplishing positive behavioral and cultural change at all scales, from individuals to large populations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Evolution requires heritable variation, but the mechanism of inheritance need not be genetic.

    “Evolution requires heritable variation, but the mechanism of inheritance need not be genetic.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    A single B-cell in full production can produce about 2,000 unattached antibody molecules per second.

    “A single B-cell in full production mode can produce about 2,000 unattached antibody molecules every second.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Epigenetics, learned behavior, and symbolic systems qualify as inheritance systems, and all four systems interact to produce evolutionary change.

    “they show how epigenetics, learned behavior, and symbolic systems also qualify as inheritance systems and how all four systems interact with one another to produce evolutionary change.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Jablonka and Lamb 2006 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Individuals with immune systems that failed to exhibit teamwork were not among our ancestors.

    “Individuals with immune systems that failed to exhibit teamwork were not among our ancestors.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Commercial marketers and political strategists attempt to influence behavioral and cultural change, often successfully and not necessarily for the common good.

    “Outside the applied academic disciplines, commercial marketers and political strategists also attempt to influence behavioral and cultural change – often very successfully and not necessarily for the common good.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Dozens of specialized immune cell types coordinate through chemical signaling to protect the organism.

    “Dozens of specialized cell types coordinate their activities through a chemical signaling system to achieve the common goal of protecting the organism.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Social constructivists did not converge on cultural evolution as a Darwin machine comparable to the immune system or explore its interactions with genetic, epigenetic, and learning processes.

    “Yet, social constructivists did not converge on the idea of cultural evolution as a Darwin machine comparable to the immune system and explore how that level of analysis interacts with genetic, epigenetic, and learning processes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    The innate immune component protects against most disease organisms but is helpless against those that evade its defenses.

    “The innate component of the immune system protects against most disease organisms but is helpless against those that manage to evade its automated defenses.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    B-cells producing an antibody are stimulated to reproduce and increase production.

    “Simultaneously, the B-cells producing the antibody are stimulated to reproduce and to ramp up their production.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A word's meaning remains consistent because of its place in a network of symbolic relations, and every such network leads to behaviors that can affect survival and reproduction.

    “The meaning of the word remains consistent due to its place in a network of symbolic relations, and every set of symbolic relations leads to a suite of behaviors that potentially influences survival and reproduction (Hayes et al. 2001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hayes et al. 2001 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning

    Collectively, 100 million antibodies can bind nearly any conceivable organic surface.

    “Collectively, the 100 million antibodies can grab onto nearly any conceivable organic surface.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Applied behavioral scientists in any discipline might benefit from integration with all other basic and applied disciplines using evolution as a common theoretical framework.

    “Applied behavioral scientists in any particular discipline might be surprised to learn how much it can benefit from integration with all other basic and applied disciplines, using evolution as the common theoretical framework.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The applied disciplines are largely unknown to modern evolutionary scientists.

    “The disciplines, in turn, are largely unknown to modern evolutionary scientists.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Integration of evolutionary theory with the human behavioral sciences and humanities is already occurring at a pace that is fast in cultural evolutionary terms.

    “This kind of integration is already occurring at a pace that is fast in cultural evolutionary terms – but it can go even faster.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    A network of symbolic relations that regulates behavior is analogous to a genotype that produces a phenotype, and the authors call it a symbotype.

    “In this sense, a network of symbolic relations that regulates behavior is like a genotype that produces a phenotype. We will call it a “symbotype” to stress the comparison.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    The adaptive immune component relies on the innate component and is itself elaborately innate.

    “Yet, not only does the adaptive component rely upon the innate component, it too is elaborately innate.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The adaptive immune component can create roughly 100 million different antibodies.

    “The adaptive component of the immune system includes the ability to create roughly 100 million different antibodies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    When integration is complete, there will be a proper basic scientific foundation for an applied science of intentional change.

    “When complete, we will have a proper basic scientific foundation for an applied science of intentional change.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Most evolutionary research has focused on genetic inheritance mechanisms, making evolution nearly synonymous with genes for most people.

    “yet the vast majority of evolutionary research has focused on genetic inheritance mechanisms – so much that for most people “evolution” is nearly synonymous with “genes.””
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Antibody binding signals innate immune attack; the antibody acts only as a tag.

    “When a given antibody grabs onto an invading disease organism, it signals the innate component of the immune system to attack; the antibody itself acts only as a tag.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    At finer detail, processes creating and selecting behavioral and cultural traits differ from those creating and selecting antibodies.

    “At a finer level of detail, the complex but systematic processes that create and select behavioral and cultural traits will differ from those that create and select antibodies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Insofar as evolutionists failed to include symbolic inheritance systems in core evolutionary theory, social constructivists were right that something was missing.

    “Insofar as evolutionists failed to include symbolic inheritance systems in core evolutionary theory, social constructivists were right to point out that something was missing.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The theories behind applied behavioral methods are highly relevant to core evolutionary theory, and their empirical results can help move evolutionary theorizing beyond just-so storytelling.

    “The theories behind these methods are highly relevant to the development of core evolutionary theory, and the empirical results can help take evolutionary theorizing beyond the “just-so” storytelling stage.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Social constructivism has long appeared opposed to evolutionary accounts of human nature.

    “A good example is the intellectual tradition of social constructivism, which has long appeared to be opposed to evolutionary accounts of human nature (Segerstrale 2001; Wilson 2005; 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Segerstrale 2001
    • cites Wilson 2005 source
    • cites Wilson 2009 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The applied human behavioral sciences are a vast archipelago of disciplines that seldom communicate with one another.

    “Like the basic human behavioral sciences and the humanities, the applied human behavioral sciences are a vast archipelago of disciplines that seldom communicate with one another.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Other genetically evolved processes are required for antibody signaling, B-cell reproduction, antibody circulation, and other functions.

    “Other genetically evolved processes are required for the antibodies that bind to antigens to signal the innate component of the immune system, for the B-cells producing the antibodies to reproduce and ramp up production, to keep the antibody circulating after elimination of the disease organism, and so on.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The analogy between the immune system and other Darwin machines should not be taken too far.

    “The analogy between the immune system and other Darwin machines should not go too far.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The scientific caliber of applied disciplines ranges from exemplary to nonexistent, and recognition of evolution is highly variable, with hardly any considering recent evolutionary science.

    “The scientific caliber of any particular applied discipline, in terms of theoretical justification and empirical methods, ranges from exemplary to nonexistent. Explicit or implicit recognition of evolution is highly variable, and hardly any of the disciplines consider recent developments in evolutionary science.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The main analogies stressed are reconciliation of genetic innateness with open-ended flexibility and the need for some Darwin machines to be multi-agent cooperative systems.

    “The main analogies that we wish to stress are (1) the reconciliation of elaborate genetic innateness with elaborate open-ended flexibility and (2) the need for some Darwin machines to be multi-agent cooperative systems.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    CBT and modern acceptance and mindfulness-based therapies are empirically supported therapeutic methods, tested by RCT.

    “CBT and modern acceptance and mindfulness–based therapies are empirically supported therapeutic methods, tested by using the gold standard of evaluation: the randomized controlled trial (RCT).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Increasing retention of new behavior by practicing skills is applicable to experts in almost any field and to personality-disordered clients trying to establish a new way of relating to their own distress.

    “Increasing retention of new behavior by practicing skills is as applicable to experts in almost any field (Ericsson & Ward 2007) as it is to personality-disordered clients trying to establish a new way of relating to their own distress (Lindenboim et al. 2007).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Ericsson & Ward 2007 source
    • cites Lindenboim et al. 2007 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Therapies that teach people to notice their thoughts without automatically obeying them induce healthy flexibility that can help people solve panic disorders, stop smoking, stay out of the hospital when suffering psychotic hallucinations, deal with diabetes, or lose weight.

    “Therapies that teach people simply to notice their thoughts without automatically having to obey them also induce healthy flexibility that can help people solve panic disorders (Arch et al. 2012a; 2012b), stop smoking (Gifford et al. 2011), stay out of the hospital when suffering psychotic hallucinations (Bach et al. 2012), deal with diabetes (Gregg et al. 2007), or lose weight (Lillis et al. 2009”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Arch et al. 2012a; 2012b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Gifford et al. 2011 source
    • cites Bach et al. 2012 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In both groups, improvements were best accounted for by greater psychological flexibility toward difficult thoughts, but ACT improved more on general and thought-specific measures of psychological flexibility.

    “In both groups, improvements were best accounted for by greater psychological flexibility toward difficult thoughts (Arch et al. 2012b), but ACT improved more on general and thought-specific measures of psychological flexibility (Arch et al. 2012a; 2012b).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Arch et al. 2012a; 2012b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    If learning is a Darwin machine, so that individuals are open-ended evolving systems with actions selected by consequences, then evolution will sometimes lead them where they prefer not to go.

    “It follows that if learning qualifies as a Darwin machine, so that individuals can be regarded as open-ended evolving systems with their actions selected by consequences, then evolution will sometimes take them where they prefer not to go.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    ACT uses acceptance and mindfulness methods to increase healthy flexibility and variability in emotional, cognitive, and behavioral actions and examines values to change the selection criterion for these actions.

    “ACT uses acceptance and mindfulness methods to increase healthy flexibility and variability in the person’s actions (emotional, cognitive, and behavioral) and examines values to change the selection criterion for these actions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    CBT and modern acceptance and mindfulness-based therapies are empirically supported therapeutic methods.

    “Even better, we have no need to speculate, because CBT and modern acceptance and mindfulness–based therapies are empirically supported therapeutic methods, tested by”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Powerful metaphors and exercises help manage the variation-and-selection process by altering the automatic behavioral impact of difficult emotions and thoughts, adding symbolic systems that regulate the impact of symbolic events.

    “Powerful metaphors and exercises help to manage the variation-and-selection process, altering the normal, automatic behavioral impact of difficult emotions and thoughts – in effect, adding symbolic systems that regulate the impact of symbolic events.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Cognitive behavior therapy uses organized examination and testing of beliefs in addition to behavior therapy methods, and it is one of the best empirically supported therapeutic interventions.

    “Through organized examination and testing of beliefs in addition to behavior therapy methods, CBT uses this universal human capacity for therapeutic purposes, and it is one of the best empirically supported therapeutic interventions (INSERM 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites INSERM 2004

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Cascades of subtle effects can outweigh direct effects, so immediate consequences are not always a reliable selection criterion for long-term adaptation.

    “Cascades of these more subtle effects of behaviors can easily outweigh direct effects, such that direct and immediate consequences are not always a reliable selection criterion for long-term adaptation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Many human phobias have clear links to dangers in the genetic ancestral environment and can be regarded as part of the innate component of the learning Darwin machine, analogous to the innate immune system.

    “That many human phobias have clear links to dangers that existed in the genetic ancestral environment (e.g., spiders, snakes, heights, closed spaces, open spaces, and strangers) can be regarded as part of the innate component of the learning Darwin machine, analogous to the innate component of the immune system (Nesse & Williams 1995).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Nesse & Williams 1995

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Generation of greater response variability during extinction of learned avoidance responses appears innate and extends across the animal world.

    “Similarly, the generation of greater response variability during extinction of learned avoidance responses appears to be innate, extending across the animal world (Bouton et al. 2001).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bouton et al. 2001 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Avoiding symbolic connections and their emotional results is reinforcing short term but greatly reduces healthy behavioral variability long term.

    “Avoiding these connections and their emotional results is reinforcing over the short term but greatly reduces healthy behavioral variability over the long term.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    In terms of the learning Darwin machine, short-term transient benefits are more reinforcing than long-term diffuse costs.

    “In terms of the learning Darwin machine, the short-term transient benefits are more reinforcing than the long-term diffuse costs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    ACT encourages people to identify important life goals and keep them as criteria for selecting behaviors, while promoting a mindful, open, curious stance toward thoughts, feelings, and experiences that reduces automatic dysfunctional interference with goals.

    “ACT encourages people to identify their most important life goals and to keep them firmly in mind as criteria for selecting behaviors. At the same time, it promotes a mindful, open, and curious stance toward one’s thoughts, feelings, and experiences, which reduces their automatic dysfunctional interference with the pursuit of important life goals.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    A rat would benefit from behavior therapy but not symbolic language therapy; a human benefits from both because the symbolic Darwin machine was added to the learning Darwin machine over human evolutionary history but did not replace it.

    “A laboratory rat would benefit from behavior therapy but not from therapy that employs symbolic language; a human benefits from both because the symbolic Darwin machine was added to the learning Darwin machine over human evolutionary history but did not replace it.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    In some cases, we know why these therapies work, and often the processes of change make sense in light of evolutionary theory.

    “We know not only that these methods work. In some cases, we also know why they work, and often the processes of change make sense in light of evolutionary theory.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Humans have evolved specialized abilities for relating events, enabling them to create networks of symbolic relations and transfer whole networks across contexts.

    “Instead, humans have evolved specialized abilities for relating events (Penn et al. 2008); due to this evolved capacity, humans can learn to create networks of symbolic relations and transfer whole networks across contexts.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Penn et al. 2008 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    From week 13 to the end of a 1-year follow-up, the ACT group experienced about 25% additional improvement, whereas the CBT group maintained their original gains but did not continue to improve.

    “From week 13 to the end of a 1-year follow-up, however, the ACT group experienced about 25% additional improvement, whereas the other group maintained their original gains but did not continue to improve.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Arch et al. 2012a

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Relational frame theory derives from functional contextual behaviorism but acknowledges that Skinner failed to explain language and symbolic thought in terms of simple operant conditioning.

    “RFT derives from the functional contextual wing of behaviorism, but it acknowledges that Skinner failed in his quest to explain language and other forms of symbolic thought in terms of simple operant conditioning.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    ACT deliberately manages the variation-and-selection process, making it easy to relate to core evolutionary theory.

    “In other words, ACT deliberately manages the variation-and-selection process, which makes it easy to relate to core evolutionary theory.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The elements of behavioral, cognitive, and mindfulness-based therapies map impressively onto the elements of learning and symbolic thought as Darwin machines.

    “When the elements of behavioral, cognitive, and mindfulness-based therapies are examined in detail, they map impressively onto the elements of learning and symbolic thought as Darwin machines.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Evolution produces both dysfunctional and functional outcomes, and many products of evolution are not adaptive.

    “One of the most basic facts about evolution is that it results in both dysfunctional and functional outcomes. Many products of evolution are not adaptive in any sense.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    In operant conditioning, behaviors are selected by differential survival and reproduction and by reinforcers, which Skinner interpreted as genetically evolved adaptations that on average lead to genetically adaptive behaviors.

    “In operant conditioning, behaviors are selected not only by differential survival and reproduction but by reinforcers, which Skinner properly interpreted as genetically evolved adaptations that lead, on average, to the adoption of genetically adaptive behaviors.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Cognitive fusion can be understood in evolutionary terms as loss of behavioral flexibility.

    “An important concept from RFT that ACT uses is cognitive fusion, which we can understand in evolutionary terms as the loss of behavioral flexibility.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Billions of dollars go into research showing effects of genetic variation and gene expression regulation on phenotypic variation, or developing gene therapy.

    “Billions of dollars go into research showing the effects of genetic variation and the regulation of gene expression on phenotypic variation, or on developing techniques of “gene therapy” that involve changing the genes of an individual person or the expression of their genes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisereasoning

    Because evolutionists are familiar with the genotype-phenotype relationship, they expect that changing genotype or gene expression can change phenotype.

    “Because evolutionists are familiar with the genotype-phenotype relationship, they fully expect that by changing the genotype (e.g., by inducing a mutation in DNA), or by changing the ability of the genotype to be transcribed or translated (e.g., by methylation of DNA), they can change the phenotype.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Acceptance and commitment therapy is well-validated and rests on relational frame theory, which can be related to core evolutionary theory.

    “We will describe a particular kind of mindfulness-based therapy called “acceptance and commitment therapy” (ACT, pronounced as one word), in part because it is well-validated and in part because it rests on a strong theoretical foundation called “relational frame theory” (RFT), which can profitably be related to core evolutionary theory (Hayes et al. 2001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hayes et al. 2001 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning

    The essence of metaphorical thinking is that a network of relations formed in one context can transfer to another context.

    “The essence of metaphorical thinking is that a network of relations formed in one context (e.g., a rose) can transfer to another context (e.g., my love).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Ostrom shared the 2009 Nobel in economics for showing that groups of people are capable of managing their common resources on their own, but only when certain conditions are met.

    “Ostrom shared the 2009 Nobel in economics for showing that groups of people are capable of managing their common resources on their own, but only when certain conditions are met.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Ostrom 1990 source
    • cites Ostrom 2005

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Ostrom 2010 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The conflict between individual self-interest and behaving 'for the good of the group' has occupied center stage in evolutionary biology since the 1960s.

    “The conflict between individual self-interest and behaving “for the good of the group” has occupied center stage in evolutionary biology since the 1960s (Williams 1966).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Williams 1966

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The one-to-many relationship between a design principle and its implementations can be demonstrated in the laboratory; in one classic experiment, the same phenotypic trait of wing vein length was selected for in isolated laboratory populations of drosophila, with phenotypic response in each population but different specific genes evolving among populations.

    “The one-to-many relationship between a design principle and its implementations can be demonstrated in the laboratory. In one classic experiment, the same phenotypic trait of wing vein length was selected for in a number of isolated laboratory populations of drosophila (Cohan 1984). There was a phenotypic response to selection in each population, but the specific genes that evolved differed among”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cohan 1984 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Elements of ACT and other acceptance and mindfulness-based methods are often found in spiritual and religious practices, suggesting that some of these practices evolved by cultural evolution as strategies that help people transcend immediate consequences to achieve longer-term success.

    “The fact that elements of ACT and other acceptance and mindfulness–based methods are often found in spiritual and religious practices suggests that some of these practices evolved by cultural evolution as strategies that help people transcend immediate consequences in order to achieve longer term success.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisecitation

    Local autonomy: When a group is nested within a larger society, the group must have enough authority to create its own social organization and make its own decisions.

    “Local autonomy. When a group is nested within a larger society, such as a farmer’s association dealing with the state government, the group must have enough authority to create its own social organization and make its own decisions, as outlined in 1–6.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ostrom 1990 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    A number of educational programs have converged on the core design principles and appear to work exceptionally well, compared with the conventional American classroom environment.

    “We will focus on the field of education, where a number of programs have converged on the core design principles and appear to work exceptionally well, compared with the conventional American classroom environment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    These core design principles are consilient with the basic evolutionary dynamics of cooperation in all species and the specific factors that caused humans to become a highly cooperative species.

    “These core design principles, which were originally informed by political science and empirically derived from the performance of contemporary groups, are consilient with the basic evolutionary dynamics of cooperation in all species and the specific factors that caused humans to become such a highly cooperative species (Wilson et al., in press; see also Boehm 2011; Gintis 2007a; 2007b; 2009; Gint”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Wilson et al., in press

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Boehm 2011

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Gintis 2007a; 2007b; 2009

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The core design principles that enable groups to function as adaptive units are so general that they have been independently derived on other 'islands' of the applied behavioral science 'archipelago,' without any awareness of Ostrom or core evolutionary theory.

    “The core design principles that enable groups to function as adaptive units are so general that they have been independently derived on other “islands” of the applied behavioral science “archipelago,” without any awareness of Ostrom or core evolutionary theory.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Sudbury Valley School embodies most of Ostrom's design principles and functions exceptionally well.

    “An alternative school called the Sudbury Valley School (preK–12; www.sudval.org) embodies most of Ostrom’s design principles and functions exceptionally well.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Gray & Chanoff 1986 source
    • cites Gray & Feldman 2004 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    A second body of information is our own particular evolutionary history, resulting in our unique ability to cooperate in groups that need not be genetically related, to think symbolically, and so on.

    “A second body of information is our own particular evolutionary history, resulting in our unique ability to cooperate in groups that need not be genetically related, to think symbolically, and so on, as recounted in previous sections of this article.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Monitoring: Even when most members of a group mean well, the temptation to receive more than one's share of benefits and to contribute less than one's share of costs always exists; if lapses and transgressions are undetectable, the group enterprise is unlikely to succeed.

    “Monitoring. Even when most members of a group mean well, the temptation to receive more than one’s share of the benefits and to contribute less than one’s share of the costs always exists. In addition, at least some members might try to game the system actively. If lapses and transgressions are undetectable, the group enterprise is unlikely to succeed.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ostrom 1990 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Proportional costs and benefits: In the most successful groups, the expectation is that everyone does his or her fair share and those who go beyond the call of duty receive appropriate recognition; when leaders receive special privileges, it is because they have special responsibilities for which they are accountable.

    “Proportional costs and benefits. Having some members do all the work whereas others receive the benefits cannot continue over a long term. In the most successful groups, the expectation is that everyone does his or her fair share and those who go beyond the call of duty receive appropriate recognition. When leaders receive special privileges, it is because they have special responsibilities for”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ostrom 1990 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Fast and fair conflict resolution: When conflicts arise, they must be resolved quickly and in a manner that the parties consider fair, typically involving a hearing in which respected, impartial members make an equitable decision.

    “Fast and fair conflict resolution. When conflicts arise, they must be resolved quickly and in a manner that the parties consider fair. This typically involves a hearing in which respected members of the group, who can be expected to be impartial, make an equitable decision.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ostrom 1990 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Once we appreciate that all evolutionary processes result in both dysfunctional and functional outcomes, and that even functional outcomes from an evolutionary perspective can be dysfunctional from the perspective of long-term human welfare, the need to manage variation-and-selection processes to prevent human problems becomes manifest.

    “Once we appreciate that all evolutionary processes result in both dysfunctional and functional outcomes, and that even functional outcomes from an evolutionary perspective can be dysfunctional from the perspective of long-term human welfare, the need to manage the variation-and-selection processes taking place all around us to prevent the development of human problems becomes manifest.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The unified academic study of human sociality can then help to improve the efficacy of real-world groups.

    “The unified academic study of human sociality can then help to improve the efficacy of real-world groups.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Graduated sanctions: Friendly, gentle reminders are usually sufficient to keep people in solid citizen mode, but there must also be the capacity to apply stronger sanctions, such as punishment or exclusion, if transgressions continue.

    “Graduated sanctions. Friendly, gentle reminders are usually sufficient to keep people in solid citizen mode, but there must also be the capacity to apply stronger sanctions, such as punishment or exclusion, if transgressions continue.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ostrom 1990 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Neighborhoods seldom have a strong sense of group identity (a violation of design principle #1); groups frequently consist of a few beleaguered volunteers who do most of the work (a violation of design principle #2); discipline in schools is frequently neither fast nor based on a procedure that students perceive as fair (a violation of design principle #6).

    “Neighborhoods seldom have a strong sense of group identity (a violation of design principle #1). Groups frequently consist of a few beleaguered volunteers who do most of the work (a violation of design principle #2). Discipline in schools is frequently neither fast nor based on a procedure that the students perceive as fair (a violation of design principle #6).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These two bodies of information provide a framework for integrating human-related academic disciplines such as sociology, social psychology, biological and cultural anthropology, history, religious studies, economics, and political science.

    “These two bodies of information provide a framework for integrating human-related academic disciplines such as sociology, social psychology, biological and cultural anthropology, history, religious studies, economics, and political science.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Reading, writing, and mathematics were invented only a few thousand years ago and might not be learnable with the same ease as hunting, gathering, and warfare.

    “Reading, writing, and mathematics were invented only a few thousand years ago and might not be learnable with the same ease as hunting, gathering, and warfare (Geary 2004; 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Geary 2004; 2011

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The same one-to-many relationship exists for the cultural evolution of symbotypes; Ostrom's database contains groups faced with an identical problem-attempts to manage irrigation systems by different Nepalese farmer associations-that arrived at different implementations of the various design principles.

    “The same one-to-many relationship exists for the cultural evolution of symbotypes. Ostrom’s database of attempts to manage common-pool resources contains groups that were faced with an identical problem—attempts to manage irrigation systems by different Nepalese farmer associations, for example (Ostrom 1990). The groups arrived at different implementations of the various design principles (e.g.,”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ostrom 1990 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In hunter-gatherer societies and many traditional cultures, learning and teaching take place largely without explicit instruction; children spend most of their time in mixed-age groups, older children are motivated to become adult, younger children are motivated to become like older children, and learning skills and roles takes place in the context of self-motivated practice and play.

    “Gray (2009; 2013 notes that in hunter-gatherer societies and many traditional cultures, learning and teaching take place largely without explicit instruction. Instead, children spend most of their time in mixed-age groups. The older children are strongly motivated to become adult, and the younger children are strongly motivated to become like the older children. Learning the skills and roles of”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gray 2009; 2013

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Applied disciplines largely unknown to evolutionists can expand core evolutionary theory, and core evolutionary theory can provide a general theoretical foundation for the applied disciplines.

    “In this way, applied disciplines largely unknown to evolutionists can expand core evolutionary theory, and core evolutionary theory can provide a general theoretical foundation for the applied disciplines.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Some interventions involve change at the individual level, using principles similar to behavioral, cognitive, and mindfulness-based therapies; others involve change at the level of small groups and large populations.

    “Some interventions involve change at the individual level, using principles similar to behavioral, cognitive, and mindfulness-based therapies. Others involve change at the level of small groups and large populations, as described in sections 3.2 and 3.3 below.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    The one-to-many relationship also exists for antibody formation: people evolve different antibodies in response to the same disease because more than one antibody can successfully bind to a given antigen; which one becomes amplified is largely a matter of chance.

    “The one-to-many relationship also exists for antibody formation: People evolve different antibodies in response to the same disease because more than one antibody can successfully bind to a given antigen; which one becomes amplified is largely a matter of chance.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Natural selection is based on relative fitness; traits that maximize the fitness of individuals relative to members of their own group are typically different from traits that maximize the fitness of the group as a whole.

    “Natural selection is based on relative fitness; and the traits that maximize the fitness of individuals, relative to members of their own group, are typically different from the traits that maximize the fitness of the group as a whole.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Williams 1966

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Group identity: Members of the most successful groups have a strong sense of group identity and know the rights and obligations of membership, along with the boundaries of the resource they are managing.

    “Group identity. Members of the most successful groups have a strong sense of group identity and know the rights and obligations of membership, along with the boundaries of the resource they are managing.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ostrom 1990 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The evolutionary dynamics of cooperation in all social species provides one body of information that can be brought to bear on real-world human groups.

    “The evolutionary dynamics of cooperation in all social species provides one body of information that can be brought to bear on real-world human groups.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The need for local groups to discover the implementations that work best for them is one reason why cookie-cutter policy solutions do not work and groups need local autonomy (design principle #7).

    “The need for local groups to discover the implementations that work best for them is one reason why cookie-cutter policy solutions do not work and groups need local autonomy (design principle #7).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    An additional set of considerations are required for groups to function as 'corporate units.'

    “However, an additional set of considerations are required for groups to function as “corporate units” in this sense.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Consensus decision making: People hate being bossed around but will work hard to implement a consensus decision; the best decisions often require knowledge of local circumstances that group members have and outsiders lack.

    “Consensus decision making. People hate being bossed around but will work hard to implement a consensus decision – to do what we want, not what they want. In addition, the best decisions often require knowledge of local circumstances that we have and they lack, making consensus decision making doubly important.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ostrom 1990 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Genetic evolution and the immune system are understood in rich mechanistic detail, whereas learning and symbolic thought are much more poorly understood, in part because they have only recently been envisioned as evolutionary processes comparable to genetic evolution and the immune system.

    “Genetic evolution and the immune system are understood in rich mechanistic detail. Learning and symbolic thought are much more poorly understood, in part because they have only recently been envisioned as evolutionary processes comparable to genetic evolution and the immune system.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Prevention scientists have developed the same ability to manage behavioral and cultural change in everyday settings that clinical scientists are generating in therapeutic settings, and they can prove it.

    “In short, prevention scientists have developed the same ability to manage behavioral and cultural change in everyday settings that clinical scientists are generating in therapeutic settings – and they can prove it.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites National Research Council & Institute of Medicine 2009

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The principles outlined for individuals are equally relevant to groups of all sizes; groups can benefit by increasing their behavioral flexibility and reflecting on their values in selecting their practices no less than individuals can.

    “The principles that we have outlined for individuals are equally relevant to groups of all sizes. Groups can benefit by increasing their behavioral flexibility and reflecting on their values in selecting their practices no less than individuals can.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Regents Academy was designed using core design principles, a safe and secure learning environment, and short-term rewards for long-term learning goals.

    “The evolutionary principles used to design the Regents Academy include the core design principles, the need for learning to occur in a safe and secure social environment, and the need for long-term learning goals to be rewarding also over the short term.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wilson et al. 2011b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Competing as groups is highly motivating and causes peer pressure within each group to reward good rather than deviant behavior.

    “Competing as groups is highly motivating and causes peer pressure within each group to reward good rather than deviant behavior.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Conventional schools can also implement the design principles more than they customarily do.

    “Conventional schools can also implement the design principles more than they customarily do.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Addressing global problems such as climate change and the worldwide economy requires intentional selection of policies with large-scale and long-term human welfare in mind, because there will be no between-planet selection.

    “There will be no between-planet selection, so addressing these problems will require another kind of selection – the intentional selection of policies with large-scale and long-term human welfare in mind.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Selecting outcomes at the group level is valuable and is the cultural equivalent of group selection in genetic evolution.

    “Our discussion of small groups also highlights the value of selecting outcomes at the group level – the cultural equivalent of group selection in genetic evolution.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Changing behavioral and cultural practices at a large spatial and temporal scale is more challenging than changing individuals and small groups, but is still possible with a sufficiently clear vision.

    “Changing behavioral and cultural practices at a large spatial and temporal scale is inherently more challenging than for individuals and small groups – but still possible with a sufficiently clear vision of what needs to be done.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The most cooperative societies expand into empires, but cultural evolution within empires favors practices that eventually lead to their collapse.

    “The most cooperative expand into empires, but then cultural evolution within the empires favors practices that eventually lead to their collapse.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Turchin (2003; 2005)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Juniper Gardens projects in Kansas City, Kansas, show robust longitudinal academic results using peer-to-peer tutoring within classrooms, which also embraces the core principles of Ostrom's key findings.

    “The Juniper Gardens projects in Kansas City, Kansas, show robust longitudinal academic results using peer-to-peer tutoring within classrooms (Greenwood 1991a; 1991b), which also embraces the core principles of Ostrom’s key findings.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Greenwood 1991a; 1991b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Children raised in cooperative social environments have multiple assets, and those raised in uncooperative environments have multiple liabilities.

    “Children raised in cooperative social environments have multiple assets, and those raised in uncooperative environments have multiple liabilities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Promise Academy started in 2004 with a first-grade and a sixth-grade class; intensive efforts to improve academic performance, based on the same educational principles in both grades, succeeded for the first-graders but failed for the sixth-graders.

    “The Promise Academy, a school associated with the highly publicized Harlem Children’s Zone, started in 2004 with a first-grade and a sixth-grade class (Tough 2008). Intensive efforts to improve academic performance, based on the same educational principles in both grades, succeeded for the first-graders but failed for the sixth-graders.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Tough 2008

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Humans evolved to maximize lifetime reproductive success, which can involve parents withholding support from particular children.

    “Humans evolved to maximize their lifetime reproductive success, which can involve parents withholding support from particular children (Trivers 1972).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Trivers 1972

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Adolescents might have become more difficult to change as groups, as peer groups play a larger role in their lives than in young children's lives; this implies that at-risk adolescents might be capable of transformational change given an appropriately designed social environment that the adolescent peer group accepts.

    “Second, adolescents might have become more difficult to change as groups, as peer groups play a larger role in their lives than in young children’s lives. The latter interpretation implies that at-risk adolescents might be capable of transformational change given an appropriately designed social environment that the adolescent peer group accepts.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The wrong environmental intervention makes change appear difficult or impossible, while the right one makes it appear effortless.

    “Once we appreciate that people of all ages are adapting to their immediate environments, it becomes clear that the wrong environmental intervention will make change appear difficult or impossible, whereas the right one will make change appear effortless.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: People of all ages adapt to their immediate environments.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Ostrom's core design principles for common-pool resource groups can be generalized from an evolutionary perspective and are equally relevant to other kinds of groups.

    “The core design principles that Ostrom derived for common-pool resource groups can be generalized from an evolutionary perspective and are equally relevant to other kinds of groups (Wilson et al., in press).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wilson et al., in press

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    At-risk adolescents might have become difficult to change as individuals, because of developmental mechanisms that are less flexible later in life than in early childhood.

    “First, it is possible that at-risk adolescents have become difficult to change as individuals, because of developmental mechanisms that are less flexible later in life than in early childhood.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    In principle, the right environmental intervention could make the difficult become easy, as is already beginning at the individual and small-group levels.

    “The challenges will be daunting, but at least in principle, the right kind of environmental intervention could cause the difficult to become easy, as is already beginning at the level of individuals and small groups.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Increased taxation on alcohol has been shown to reduce alcohol consumption, alcohol-related morbidity and mortality, traffic accident deaths, sexually transmitted disease, violence, and crime.

    “One example is increased taxation on alcohol, a policy that has been shown to reduce alcohol consumption, alcohol-related morbidity and mortality, traffic accident deaths, sexually transmitted disease, violence, and crime.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The importance of consensus decision making for groups to function as cooperative units accentuates the need for democratic processes to formulate benign social policies.

    “Indeed, the importance of consensus decision making for groups to function as cooperative units accentuates the need for democratic processes to formulate benign social policies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    If improving the human condition is the goal, there is no alternative to becoming wise managers of evolutionary processes.

    “If improving the human condition is our goal, there is no alternative to becoming wise managers of evolutionary processes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Variation, selection, and heredity comprise an open-ended process capable of adapting organisms to their current environments according to selection criteria.

    “Variation, selection, and heredity comprise an open-ended process capable of adapting organisms to their current environments according to the selection criteria.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The concept of human symbolic thought as a Darwin machine is especially new for nearly all disciplines.

    “The concept of human symbolic thought as a Darwin machine is especially new for nearly all disciplines.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    For decades, evolution was marginalized in the human behavioral sciences, and evolutionists concentrated almost entirely on genetic evolution, not highlighting learning and symbolic thought as evolutionary processes until recently.

    “For decades, evolution has been marginalized in the human behavioral sciences as a process that can explain the rest of life, our physical bodies, and a few basic urges, but has little to say about our rich behavioral and cultural diversity. Evolutionists, in turn, have concentrated almost entirely on genetic evolution, which includes the concept of phenotypic plasticity, but which did not”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Jablonka & Lamb 2006 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    A science of intentional change centered on evolution can be applied to any real-world behavioral or cultural issue.

    “Just as evolutionary biologists are accustomed to studying all traits in all species, a science of intentional change centered on evolution can be applied to any real-world behavioral or cultural issue.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Triple P is now being implemented in more than 20 nations worldwide.

    “Triple P is now being implemented in more than 20 nations worldwide, using a dissemination strategy as novel as its implementation strategy.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The interventions created conditions that favored selection of behaviors or cultural practices desired by individuals and communities.

    “Rather, the interventions created conditions that favored the selection of behaviors or cultural practices that were desired by individuals and communities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given

    A particular configuration of ideas associated with evolutionary psychology set itself apart from the standard social science model, which includes disciplines successful in developing the beginnings of a science of intentional behavior change.

    “Much progress was made, but a particular configuration of ideas that became associated with evolutionary psychology (EP) set itself apart from the so-called standard social science model (SSSM), which includes the very disciplines that have been successful in developing the beginnings of a science of intentional behavior change.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The paradox of elaborate genetic innateness and an elaborate capacity for open-ended change can be reconciled through the concept of Darwin machines.

    “A step in this direction is to achieve a consensus that the paradox of elaborate genetic innateness and an elaborate capacity for open-ended change can be reconciled through the concept of Darwin machines.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Despite the Regents Academy's first-year success, staff turnover threatened its continuity, and orienting new staff required procedures different from the program itself.

    “Despite its success during the first year, staff turnover threatened its continuity. New staff had to be oriented to the program, requiring procedures that were different from the program itself.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Symbolic systems, like genotypes and antibodies, exist in nearly infinite variety, and a symbotype-phenotype relationship exists that is similar to the genotype-phenotype relationship.

    “The fact that symbolic systems, like genotypes and antibodies, exist in nearly infinite variety and that a symbotype-phenotype relationship exists that is similar to the genotype-phenotype relationship is profound in its implications for a science of intentional change.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Evolutionists have much to learn from branches of the human behavioral sciences where learning as a variation-and-selection process has occupied center stage for decades.

    “Evolutionists therefore have much to learn from branches of the human behavioral sciences where learning as a variation-and-selection process has occupied center stage for decades.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    A science of intentional change need not compromise norms of respect for individual rights.

    “A science of intentional change need not compromise norms of respect for the rights of individuals.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Regents Academy represents an integration of political science, education, and clinical psychology that had not occurred before but came together easily from an evolutionary perspective.

    “The Regents Academy for at-risk high school students (Wilson et al. 2011a; 2011b), which was explicitly designed from an evolutionary perspective, is an encouraging sign. It represents an integration of disciplines such as political science, education, and clinical psychology that had not taken place in the past but came together easily from an evolutionary perspective.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wilson et al. 2011a; 2011b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Accomplishing a basic science of intentional change centered on evolution requires resolving the paradox of elaborate genetic innateness and elaborate open-ended flexibility.

    “Accomplishing the first goal requires resolving the paradox of elaborate genetic innateness and elaborate open-ended flexibility.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Policies are winnowed by selection to a degree, but there is tremendous room for improvement by using an expanded evolutionary theory to organize perception and rigorous experimental methods to evaluate consequences.

    “The policies are winnowed by selection to a degree – it is not as if we are doing everything wrong – but there is tremendous room for improvement by using an expanded evolutionary theory to organize our perception and the most rigorous experimental methods to evaluate the consequences of our actions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
177 of 177

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Current ability to change behavioral and cultural practices lags far behind the ability to manipulate the physical environment.

    “Despite some notable successes, some of which we highlight in this article, our ability to change our behavioral and cultural practices lags far behind our ability to manipulate the physical environment.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Applied behavioral science examples are largely unknown beyond their disciplinary boundaries because there is no unifying theoretical framework.

    “However, these examples are largely unknown beyond their disciplinary boundaries, for lack of a unifying theoretical framework.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The human behavioral sciences are currently in disarray on the subject of change.

    “The human behavioral sciences are currently in disarray on the subject of change.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Every human-related discipline has its own configuration of ideas that seldom relate to other disciplines or to modern evolutionary science.

    “Every discipline has its own configuration of ideas that seldom relate to other disciplines or to modern evolutionary science.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The human brain is an elaborate product of genetic evolution.

    “On the other, as with all species, the human brain is an elaborate product of genetic evolution.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    No examples of scientifically guided social change compare to putting a man on the moon.

    “No examples of scientifically guided social change can compare to putting a man on the moon.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    People of all ages adapt to their immediate environments.

    “Once we appreciate that people of all ages are adapting to their immediate environments, it becomes clear that the wrong environmental intervention will make change appear difficult or impossible, whereas the right one will make change appear effortless.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Human genetically evolved adaptations for cooperation, including cultural transmission of learned behavior, evolved in small face-to-face groups and may not work well in larger groups.

    “An important point to keep in mind is that our genetically evolved adaptations for cooperation, including the cultural transmission of learned behavior, evolved in the context of small face-to-face groups and might not necessarily work well in the context of larger groups.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Men are especially likely to invest in mating effort rather than parental effort.

    “Men are especially likely to invest in mating effort rather than parental effort.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Most successful interventions work for single families or small groups.

    “Most successful interventions work for single families or small groups.”
10 of 10

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Trials are assigned to the wrong section

    Minor

    The introduction says the randomized controlled trials are described in section 2, but it assigns the review of validated change programs to section 3, where the trials are discussed.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

11 of the 664 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 18

  1. Ehrenreich, 1997, The new creationism: Biology under attack, The Nation, 264, 11
  2. Plotkin, 2003, The imagined world made real: Toward a natural science of culture
  3. Maus M. B. (2007) Independent group contingencies for reducing disruptive behavior in preschoolers with PDD-NOS. Doctoral dissertation, Hofstra University, 2006. No. 3247981. ProQuest. Available at: http://www.proquest.com.
  4. Daly, 1988, Homicide
  5. Hofstadter, 1959, Social Darwinism in American thought
  6. 2004, Psychotherapy: Three approaches evaluated
  7. Bennett M. M. (2007) An interdependent group contingency with mystery motivators to increase spelling performance. Doctoral dissertation, No. 3239791. ProQuest. Available at: http://www.proquest.com.
  8. Maynard Smith, 1995, The major transitions of life
  9. Stokes, 1978, Promoting participation in a community-based educational program, Journal of Personalized Instruction, 3, 29
  10. 10.3386/w15740 · DOI
  11. Aunger, 2002, The electric meme
  12. Chatwin, 1988, The songlines
  13. Gross, 1981, Public posting of photographs: A new classroom reinforcer, Child Behavior Therapy, 3, 81
  14. Wilson, 2012, Clash of paradigms: Why proponents of multilevel selection theory and inclusive fitness theory sometimes (but not always) misunderstand each other, Social Evolution Forum
  15. Kashdan, 2009, Curious: Discovering the missing ingredient to a fulfilling life
  16. Daly, 2001, An assessment of some proposed exceptions to the phenomenon of nepotistic discrimination against stepchildren, Annales Zoologici Fennici, 38, 287
  17. Wilson, 2011a, Evolution of selfless behaviour, New Scientist, 211, i
  18. Turchin, 2005, War and peace and war

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Wilson, D. S., Hayes, S. C., Biglan, A., & Embry, D. D.
Affiliations
  • Binghamton University (US)
  • University of Nevada, Reno (US)
  • Oregon Research Institute (US)
ORCID
Venue
Behavioral and Brain Sciences
Publisher
Cambridge University Press (CUP)
Published
2014-05-15
Volume
37
Issue
4
Pages
395-416
ISSN
  • 0140-525X (ISSN-L)
  • 1469-1825
DOI
10.1017/s0140525x13001593
PMC
PMC4331065
OpenAlex
W2044880034
Cited by
255
References
664
Citations by year
2026: 5 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 27 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 28 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 5
FWCI
19.20
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.cambridge.org/core/terms (unspecified)
Locations
  • Behavioral and Brain Sciences (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
  • National Institute on Drug Abuse (RC2DA028946)
  • Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD060922, HD60922)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Cultural Studies › Language and cultural evolution
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › Philosophy and History of Science
Keywords
intentional change, behavior change, cultural change, phenotypic plasticity, evolution, symbolic thinking, evolutionary psychology, social constructivism, behaviorism, social psychology, cognitive psychology, applied behavioral science, variation and selection
MeSH terms
Behavioral Sciences, Behaviorism, Cultural Evolution, Humans

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-09-28.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-09-28.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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