Sintering and hot pressing of fra mauro composition glass and the lithification of lunar breccias
Open accessAbstract
It is proposed that Apollo 14 type breccias lithify by sintering of particles of matrix glass under stress-free conditions. Meteorite impacts generate the heat necessary for sintering. Compacted angular particles of glass with the composition of an Apollo 14 rock were sintered experimentally. Loose clods of sub 37 micron grains form in several days at 700 C. Synthetic rocks, which texturally resemble the breccias, were produced at 795 C and above in 7.5 hours. Glass devitrified with increasing temperature. At 850 C, devitrification prevents much further densification of the synthetic breccias after 2 hours. Experiments compressing glass at 500 bars at 600 C produced dense vitreous masses which did not resemble lunar breccias. Confining pressure does not play a major role in lithifying the breccias. It is concluded that Apollo 14 type lunar breccias form at shallow depths at 800 C+ in a period of minutes to days.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Sintering coarser grains (149-173 μm) did not form a cohesive structure below 850°C.
“Moreover, the sintering of coarser grains (size distribution between 149 μ m and 173 μ m) did not form a cohesive structure below 850 ◦ C.”
From A comprehensive review of lunar-based manufacturing and construction (2024) · cites this paper as [313]
Table 3 in SINTERING EXPERIMENTS (p. 6) classifies the coarsest fraction as “loose A” even at 850°C, supporting the claim that it was not cohesive below that temperature in the 7.5-hour runs. The paper gives that fraction as 149–177 μm, not 149–173 μm. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSintering glass powder close to Apollo 14 regolith composition below 37 μm at 800°C for 7.5 h formed a cohesive material, while at 750°C it resulted in loose clods.
“Using a glass powder with a composition close to regolith from Apollo 14 with a size below 37 μ m, samples were sintered at 750 ◦ C and 800 ◦ C for 7.5 h. While a cohesive material was formed at 800 ◦ C, sintering at 750 ◦ C resulted in loose clods.”
From A comprehensive review of lunar-based manufacturing and construction (2024) · cites this paper as [313]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
The publisher hasn’t deposited this paper’s reference list.
Research works printed but not linked: 8
- Carrier, W. D., Bromwell, L. G., and Martin, R. T., 1972, Strength and compressibility of returned lunar soil: Geochim. et Cosmochim. Acta, supp. 3, v. 3, 3d Lunar Scí. Conf. Proc., p. 3223-3234.
- Chao, E. C. T., Boreman, J. A., and Desbrough, G. A., 1971, The petrology of unshocked and shocked Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 microbreccias: Ġeochim. et Cosmochim. Acta, supp. 2, v. 1, 2d Lunar Sci. Conf. Proc., p. 797-816.
- Gault, D. E., Horz, F., and Hartung, J., 1972, Effects of microcratering of the lunar surface: Geochim. et Cosmochim. Acta, supp. 3, v. 3, 3d Lunar Sci. Conf. Proc., p. 2713-2734.
- Gose, W. A., Pearce, G. W., Strangway, D. W., and Larson, E. E., 1972, Magnetic properties of Apollo 14 breccias and their correlation with metamorphism: Geochim. et Cosmochim. Acta, supp. 3, v. 3, 3d Lunar Sci. Conf. Proc., p. 2387-2395.
- Gibson, E. K., Jr., and Moore, G. W., 1972, Inorganic gas release and thermal analysis study of Apollo 14 and 15 soils: Geochim. et Cosmochim. Acta, supp. 3, v. 2, 3d Lunar Sci. Conf. Proc., p. 2029-2040.
- Kirkpatrick, R. J., ms, 1972, The kinetics of crystal growth in the system diopsideCATS and the application of crystal growth theory to some geologic problems: Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Illinois, Urbana, 87 p.
- McKay, D. S., Heiken, G. H., Taylor, R. M., Clanton, U. S., and Morrison, D. A., 1972, Apollo 14 Soils: Size distribution and particle types: Geochim. et Cosmochim. Acta, supp. 3, v. 1, 3d Lunar Sci. Conf. Prôc., p. 983-994.
- Warner, J. L., 1972, Metamorphism of Apollo 14 breccias: Geochim. et Cosmochim. Acta, supp. 3, v. 1, 3d Lunãr Sci. Conf. Proc., p. 623-643.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Farries, K. W., Visintin, P., Smith, S. T., & van Eyk, P. (2021) · Construction and Building Materials · doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.123627 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Vacuum sintered lunar regolith simulant: Pore-forming and thermal conductivity
Song, L., Xu, J., Fan, S., Tang, H., Li, X., Liu, J., & Duan, X. (2019) · Ceramics International · doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2018.11.023 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Sintering of HUST-1 lunar regolith simulant
Han, W., Ding, L., Cai, L., Zhu, J., Luo, H., & Tang, T. (2022) · Construction and Building Materials · doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.126655 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Heiken, G. H. (1975) · Reviews of Geophysics · doi:10.1029/rg013i004p00567 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Karl, D., Cannon, K. M., & Gurlo, A. (2021) · Open Ceramics · doi:10.1016/j.oceram.2021.100216 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
A comprehensive review of lunar-based manufacturing and construction
Azami, M., Kazemi, Z., Moazen, S., Dubé, M., Potvin, M.-J., & Skonieczny, K. (2024) · Progress in Aerospace Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.paerosci.2024.101045 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Kiefer, W. S. (2012) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1029/2012je004111 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Experimental studies indicate that lunar rocks experienced significant annealing in less than 1 year if the temperature exceeded 800 C [Simonds, 1973; Uhlmann et al., 1975].”
BackgroundFreundt, A. (1998) · Bulletin of Volcanology · doi:10.1007/s004450050201 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Cold sintering as a promising ISRU technique: A case study of Mars regolith simulant
Karacasulu, L., Karl, D., Gurlo, A., & Vakifahmetoglu, C. (2022) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2022.115270 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Ejecta–megaregolith accumulation on planetesimals and large asteroids
Warren, P. H. (2011) · Meteoritics and Planetary Science · doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2010.01138.x · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“For modeling tS at the late-initial stage of sintering, I assume X = r ⁄5 (Simonds 1973) and c = 0.5 J m)2 (Cooper and Kohlstedt 1982).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialKarl, D., Kamutzki, F., Zocca, A., Görke, O., Guenster, J., & Gurlo, A. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0204025 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
The nature of the gravity anomalies associated with large young lunar craters
Dvorak, J. J., & Phillips, R. J. (1977) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/gl004i009p00380 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Vacuum sintering of the self-developed Chang’E-5 lunar regolith simulant
Ding, M., Chen, X., Li, Y., Song, L., Shi, Y., Luo, L., & Wang, Q. (2024) · Construction and Building Materials · doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.137343 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Isachenkov, M., Grande, A. M., & Sala, G. (2024) · Ceramics International · doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2024.06.034 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Sintering of Lunar and Simulant Glass
Cooper, B. L., & El‐Genk, M. S. (2008) · AIP conference proceedings · doi:10.1063/1.2844966 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Aiyeki, A. D., Тихонов, А. А., & Chugunov, S. S. (2025) · Acta Astronautica · doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2025.04.009 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
The life and times of Big Bertha: lunar breccia 14321
Duncan, A. R., Grieve, R. A. F., & Weill, D. F. (1975) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/0016-7037(75)90196-9 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Head, J. W., III, & Wilson, L. (2019) · Planetary and Space Science · doi:10.1016/j.pss.2019.104765 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“…~10 km in the Moon will be ~480 K; injection of the above magma will lead to an interface temperature of 1097 K, i.e., 824 C. Kiefer, 2013 quotes data from Simonds (1973) and Uhlmann et al. (1975) showing that lunar rocks experienced substantial annealing if held at >800 C for the order of a year.”
BackgroundSintering, crystallization, and breccia formation
UHLMANN, D. R., Klein, L. C., & Hopper, R. W. (1975) · Earth Moon and Planets · doi:10.1007/bf00567519 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
3D printable regolith filled shape memory vitrimer composite for extraterrestrial application
Gyabaah, K. Y., Konlan, J., Tetteh, O., Jahan, M., Jackson, E. M., Mensah, P. F., & Li, G. (2024) · Journal of Composite Materials · doi:10.1177/00219983241274544 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“20,21 Sintering of lunar regolith is done by subjecting it to elevated temperature or microwave heating energy of 1200 – 1500 ℃ 15 .”
Indigenous Resource Utilization in Design of Advanced Lunar Facility
Bell, L. S., Fahey, M. G., Wise, T. K., & Spana, P. C. (1992) · Journal of Aerospace Engineering · doi:10.1061/(asce)0893-1321(1992)5:2(230 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
A Review of Selective Laser Sintering/Melting Techniques for Lunar Construction
Agapkin, I. A., & Slyuta, E. (2025) · Acta Astronautica · doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2025.08.047 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Fast firing technique for Martian regolith simulant: Advancing ISRU capabilities
Karacasulu, L., Tomasini, A., Vakifahmetoglu, C., & Biesuz, M. (2025) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2025.116521 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Mineralogy, petrology, and geochemistry of the lunar samples
Warner, J. L. (1975) · Reviews of Geophysics · doi:10.1029/rg013i003p00107 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Deng, Y., Li, F., Zhou, S., Tao, X., Zhou, Q., & Feng, Q. (2025) · Acta Astronautica · doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2025.08.038 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Tomilina, T. M., Kim, A. A., Lisov, D., & Lysenko, A. M. (2024) · Cosmic Research · doi:10.1134/s0010952524600781 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Alexander-Roy, L., Ranaiefar, M., Singh, M., & Halbig, M. C. (2025) · Polymers · doi:10.3390/polym17192685 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
POWDER METALLURGY IN SPACE MANUFACTURING
Criswell, D. R. (1981) · doi:10.2514/6.1981-3267 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Characterization and Discrete Element Modeling of LHS-1 Lunar Highlands Simulant
Tasnim, Z., Chen, Q., Badal, J., & Wang, L. (2023) · ASCE Geo-Congress · doi:10.1061/9780784484692.008 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Du, T.-R. T., Zhang, A., Chen, J.-N., et al. (2023) · American Mineralogist · doi:10.2138/am-2022-8790 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Tomilina, T. M., Ким, А. А., Lisov, D., & Лысенко, А. М. (2025) · Cosmic Research · doi:10.31857/s0023420624050107 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Heiken, G. H. (1977) · Collected reprint series · doi:10.1002/9781118782118.ch11
(1977) · American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics eBooks · doi:10.2514/5.9781600865312.0125.0131
- Authors
- Simonds, C. H.
- Corresponding author
- Simonds, C. H.
- Venue
- American Journal of Science
- Publisher
- American Journal of Science (AJS)
- Published
- 1973-05-01
- Volume
- 273
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 428-439
- ISSN
- 0002-9599 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2047927175
- Cited by
- 34
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2025: 6 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 2 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 2 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 2.20
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- American Journal of Science (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astro and Planetary Science
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Planetary Science and Exploration
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geophysics › Geological and Geochemical Analysis
- Keywords
- lunar breccias, lithification, sintering, hot pressing, lunar glass, devitrification, densification, lunar regolith
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
