Between Assistance and Dependence: Artificial Intelligence and Critical Thinking. A Study on First-Year University Students
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This study examined the relationship between dependence on generative AI tools and the dimensions of critical thinking among first-semester students at a university in Trujillo, Peru. A quantitative, correlational, cross-sectional design was applied to a sample of 200 students, using validated Likert-scale instruments for AI dependence and for interpretation, explanation, inference, analysis, and evaluation. The results show moderate levels of AI use, primarily as support, alongside an uneven critical-thinking profile. AI dependence is negatively associated with the overall critical-thinking score and more strongly with inference and evaluation, whereas interpretation and explanation remain comparatively stronger. The regression models explain a meaningful share of the variance and suggest that unmediated AI use may displace self-regulatory processes in novice students. The study contributes empirical evidence from the Peruvian context—underrepresented in the regional literature—and offers practical guidelines for integrating AI as a verifiable pedagogical scaffolding that requires reconstructing reasoning and verifying sources. Curricular interventions aiseacher training in critical digital literacy are recommended, as are longitudinal and experimental studies to strengthen causal inference.
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Frequent utilization of Generative AI tools in the absence of any specific framework reduces cognitive friction.
“Frequent utilization of Generative AI tools in the absence of any specific framework reduced Cognitive friction (Amaya, et al., 2025)”
From The Double-Edged Sword of Automation: Impact of Generative AI Adoption on Student's Critical Thinking Skills in Higher Education Considering Cognitive Offloading as a Mediator (2026) · cites this paper as Amaya, et al., 2025
The Theoretical Framework (§2.6) links substitution-oriented AI use without planning or verification to reduced self-regulatory engagement. The Discussion (§5) describes shallower engagement with unstructured use, but also says the cross-sectional study cannot establish causation. The paper does not measure “cognitive friction” or show that frequent use itself reduces it. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredGenerative AI adoption is accelerating more rapidly than previous technologies.
“Generative AI adoption is accelerating more rapidly than previous technologies, (Amaya, et al., 2025)”
From The Double-Edged Sword of Automation: Impact of Generative AI Adoption on Student's Critical Thinking Skills in Higher Education Considering Cognitive Offloading as a Mediator (2026) · cites this paper as Amaya, et al., 2025
The Introduction describes the rapid diffusion of generative AI in higher education, and section 2.1 says AI integration there has accelerated with generative tools. Neither passage compares its adoption rate with that of previous technologies, so the comparative part of the claim is unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe frictionless availability of AI has introduced a profound tension between technological assistance and cognitive dependence.
“This frictionless availability of AI has introduced a profound tension between technological assistance and cognitive dependence (Amaya, et al., 2025).”
From The Double-Edged Sword of Automation: Impact of Generative AI Adoption on Student's Critical Thinking Skills in Higher Education Considering Cognitive Offloading as a Mediator (2026) · cites this paper as Amaya, et al., 2025
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Research works printed but not linked: 12
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Ethical and Responsible Use of Generative Artificial Intelligence by University Students
Magaña, E. C., Almenara, J. C., Ruiz‐Palmero, J., & Palacios‐Rodríguez, A. (2026) · IJERI International Journal of Educational Research and Innovation · doi:10.46661/ijeri.13253 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Jaffar, Z. F., Alvi, A., Rahim, A., Ambreen, S., & Jaffar, M. M. (2026) · Journal of Language, Literature & Social Affairs · doi:10.63056/jllsa.2.5.2026.253
“This frictionless availability of AI has introduced a profound tension between technological assistance and cognitive dependence (Amaya, et al., 2025).”
InfluentialReyes, C. A. R., Jiménez, K. I. R., Gastelo, N. E. M., & Farroñán, E. V. R. (2026) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2026.1864949
Zuin, M., & Donadel, V. (2026) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe16090130
Huali, F. A. N., Pan, S., Shao, S., & Wang, C. (2026) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.107758
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Li, S. (2026) · International Conference on Intelligent Education and Computer Technology (IECT) · doi:10.1145/3845354.3845530
Elhefni, E., Ihwanah, A., Saputra, A. D., Syarifuddin, A., Rido, A., Shenia, A. S., Masning, M., Noviyanti, D., Subhan, S., & Ariani, R. (2026) · International Journal of Learning Teaching and Educational Research · doi:10.26803/ijlter.25.10.43
- Authors
- Amaya, E. A. V., Zavaleta, A. R. S., Luján, I. G. V., López, E. G., Reyna, J. T., & Gonzales, J. D. R.
- Affiliations
- Universidad Nacional del Santa (PE)
- National University of Trujillo (PE)
- Universidad César Vallejo (PE)
- ORCID
- Venue
- International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
- Published
- 2025-12-30
- Volume
- 24
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 118-134
- ISSN
- 1694-2116 (ISSN-L)
- 1694-2493
- OpenAlex
- W4417041172
- Cited by
- 6
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6
- FWCI
- 6.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by-nc-nd
- Locations
- International Journal of Learning Teaching and Educational Research (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Artificial Intelligence in Education
- Social Sciences › Education › Education and Critical Thinking Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- critical thinking, first-year students, artificial intelligence in higher education, self-regulation, critical digital literacy, teacher professional development, source verification
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