The DOI matches its Crossref record; 46 of the 46 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 2 of the 50 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning
Open accessAbstract
Many teaching practices implicitly assume that conceptual knowledge can be abstracted from the situations in which it is learned and used. This article argues that this assumption inevitably limits the effectiveness of such practices. Drawing on recent research into cognition as it is manifest in everyday activity, the authors argue that knowledge is situated, being in part a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it is developed and used. They discuss how this view of knowledge affects our understanding of learning, and they note that conventional schooling too often ignores the influence of school culture on what is learned in school. As an alternative to conventional practices, they propose cognitive apprenticeship (Collins, Brown, & Newman, in press), which honors the situated nature of knowledge. They examine two examples of mathematics instruction that exhibit certain key features of this approach to teaching.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
The paper argues that knowledge is fundamentally situated—partly a product of activity, context, and culture—so teaching methods that treat concepts as abstract, self-contained, and transferable are often misleading and ineffective. As an alternative, it proposes “cognitive apprenticeship,” illustrated through two mathematics teaching examples.
Key findings
- Knowledge is not independent of situations; it is a co-production of mind and world, and abstraction/explication provides an “inherently impoverished and often misleading” view of knowledge.
- Vocabulary taught from dictionary definitions is slow and unsuccessful: the average 17-year-old learns vocabulary at 5,000 words per year (13 per day) over 16 years through listening, talking, and reading, whereas classroom definition-based teaching can cover only 100 to 200 words per year and produces errors such as “I was meticulous about falling off the cliff.”
- Learning is a process of enculturation into authentic activity and culture; school activity is often “ersatz” and self-confirming, so success in school may have little bearing on performance elsewhere.
- Cognitive apprenticeship—using modeling, coaching, fading, social interaction, and collaboration—can enculturate students into authentic practices; the paper examines Schoenfeld’s magic-square problem-solving class and Lampert’s fourth-grade multiplication teaching through coin problems and student-generated stories.
Methods
- Conceptual and theoretical paper, not an empirical study; it synthesizes research on everyday cognition, apprenticeship, situated learning, indexicality, and enculturation.
- Uses illustrative cases and examples, including Miller and Gildea’s vocabulary teaching, Lave’s Weight Watchers cottage-cheese problem, Schoenfeld’s mathematics teaching, and Lampert’s multiplication teaching.
- Main analysis is argumentative: it contrasts JPF, student, and practitioner activity (Table 1) and proposes cognitive apprenticeship as an alternative to conventional didactic schooling.
Limitations
- Stated: the authors describe the exploration as “consciously speculative” and “admittedly tentative”; they say the paper does not attempt a historical survey or critical analysis, and that “major theoretical work” on situated cognition remains to be done.
- Stated: future work must frame the relationship between explicit knowledge and implicit understanding.
- Evident: the paper presents no controlled outcome data or systematic evaluation; its claims about transfer, school culture, and cognitive apprenticeship rest on conceptual argument and illustrative examples.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
118 Own interpretation · 41 Sources not found · 4 No full text of the sources · 2 No basis given · 1 Partly supported · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“We know from an extensive literature on the subject (diSessa, 1982, 1983, 1986; McCloskey, Caramazza, & Green, 1980; White, 1983) that students have many misconceptions about qualitative phenomena in physics.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites diSessa, 1982, 1983, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Supportedcites McCloskey, Caramazza, & Green, 1980 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
McCloskey, Caramazza, and Green (1980) is cited as one work in a broader literature supporting the sentence, not as evidence for every misconception in physics. A Semantic Scholar snippet from “Overcoming University Students’ Alternative Conceptions in Newtonian Mechanics” (score 0.493) explicitly attributes undergraduate students’ mistaken predictions about curvilinear motion to McCloskey et al. (1980). The cited paper therefore supports the claim through a concrete example, although paper-scoped searches returned no full-text snippets. (LLM, conf=0.79)
- Could not verifycites White, 1983 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The supplied source, D. W. R. White’s 1983 paper “Plant Regeneration from Mesophyll Protoplasts of White Clover,” concerns plant regeneration, not physics education. Two searches within that paper returned no snippets, but the absence of accessible text prevents a definitive finding about its contents. An unscoped search found only lower-scoring discussions of physics misconceptions in other papers, not a sufficiently strong match to identify the intended White (1983) source. The citation appears mismatched, but the evidence does not meet the threshold for a misattribution verdict. (LLM, conf=0.75)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The occasions and conditions for use arise directly out of the context of activities of each community or culture that uses the tool, framed by the way members of that culture see the world.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Miller and Gildea's (1987) work on vocabulary teaching shows how the assumption that knowing and doing can be separated leads to a teaching method that ignores the way situations structure cognition.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Miller and Gildea (1987) source
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In the paper
“Miller and Gildea note that by listening, talking, and reading the average 17-year-old has learned vocabulary at a rate of 5,000 words per year (13 per day) for over 16 years.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Miller and Gildea
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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- Not matched
In the paper
“Language use would involve an unremitting confrontation with ambiguity, polysemy, nuance, metaphor, etc., were it not for the extralinguistic help that the context of an utterance provides (Nunberg, 1978).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Nunberg, 1978
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Similarly, it is common for students to acquire algorithms, routines, and decontextualized definitions that they cannot use and that therefore lie inert.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To develop this comparison between tools and knowledge, between manual tools and conceptual tools, a little further, it can be noted that learning how to use a tool involves far more than can be accounted for in any set of explicit rules.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“They are bound by intricate, socially constructed webs of belief, which make it possible to see them as cultures (Geertz, 1983), and which are essential to interpreting what they do.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Geertz, 1983
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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In the paper
“Because new situations, negotiations, and activities inevitably recast them in a new, more densely textured form, concepts continually evolve with each new occasion of use.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The authors examine one such method and argue that its lack of success is a direct result of this assumption.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“There is barely enough classroom time, Miller and Gildea suggest, to teach more than 100 to 200 words per year.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Miller and Gildea
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Many teaching methods implicitly assume that conceptual knowledge is independent of the situations in which it is learned and used.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“By contrast, learning words from definitions and sentences abstracted from the context of normal communication, the way vocabulary has often been taught, is slow and unsuccessful.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Miller and Gildea
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Knowledge, we claim, is partially embedded in the social and physical world.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“It is impossible to capture the densely interwoven nature of conceptual knowledge completely in explicit, abstract accounts.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Learning is the process of constructing robust understanding out of this sort of embedded activity.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Teaching methods, however, often try to impart abstracted conceptual tools as fixed, well-defined, independent entities that can be explored in prototypical examples and textbook exercises.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“And these embedding circumstances allow people to share the burden of solving problems efficiently.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Knowledge is fundamentally a co-production of the mind and the world, which like woof and warp need each other to produce texture and to complete an otherwise incoherent pattern.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Teaching, however, often overlooks the central, but restrictive, contribution made by the activities, context, and culture of schools to what is learned there.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“And the general strategies for intuitive reasoning, resolving issues, and negotiating meaning that people develop through everyday activity are superseded by the precise, well-defined problems, formal definitions, and symbol manipulation that characterize much school activity.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such ploys indicate how thoroughly learners really are situated, and how they always lean on the embedding context for help.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“So even though students are expected to behave differently, they inevitably do behave like the JPFs they are and solve most of their problems in their own situated way.”
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In the paper
“To learn to use tools as practitioners use them, students, like apprentices, must be enabled to enter that community and its culture.”
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In the paper
“Unfortunately, students are too often presented with only a part of this complex.”
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In the paper
“The issues and problems that they face arise out of, are defined by, and are resolved within the constraints of their belief system and the activity they are pursuing.”
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In the paper
“Though these are often anathema to traditional schooling, they are an essential component of social interaction and thus of learning.”
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In the paper
“Within a culture, ideas are exchanged and modified and belief systems developed and appropriated in part through conversation and narratives”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Learning is instead a continual process needing above all authentic activity to support its development.”
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In the paper
“From here, students can, as we have suggested, use their fledgling conceptual knowledge to see their activity in a new light, which in turn leads to the further development of the conceptual knowledge, and so on.”
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In the paper
“When descriptions replace indexical terms (which is analogous, we hold, to classroom descriptions of activity replacing activity), the nature of discourse changes and understanding becomes much more problematic.”
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In the paper
“The social network within the culture helps them develop its language and the belief systems and promotes the process of enculturation.”
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In the paper
“They need to observe how qualified practitioners behave and talk to get a sense of how expertise is manifest in conversation and other activities.”
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In the paper
“Collaboration also leads to the articulation or manifestation of strategies, which can then be discussed and reflected on.”
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In the paper
“If, as we propose, learning is a process of enculturating that is supported in part through social interaction and the circulation of narrative”
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In the paper
“As the students gain more self-confidence and control, they move into a more autonomous phase of collaborative learning, where they begin to participate consciously in the culture.”
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In the paper
“The group, however, permits different roles to be displayed and engenders reflective narratives and discussions about the aptness of those roles.”
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In the paper
“In this sequence, apprenticeship and coaching begin by providing modeling in situ and scaffolding for students to get started in an authentic activity.”
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In the paper
“The belief system is instilled in the only way it can be, through practice in which the students actively take part.”
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In the paper
“In language learning, for example, the original frail understanding of a word is developed and extended through subsequent use and social negotiation, though each use is no less situated.”
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In the paper
“Successful execution of most individual tasks requires students to understand the many different roles needed for carrying out that task.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This further suggests that a new epistemology might hold the key to a dramatic improvement in learning and completely new insights into education.”
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In the paper
“In educational terms alone, however, the unheralded importance of activity and enculturation to learning suggests that much common practice is the product of an inadequate epistemology.”
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In the paper
“All knowledge is, we believe, like language. Its constituent parts index the world and so are inextricably a product of the activity and situations in which they are produced and used.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus all concepts--even apparently well-defined, abstract technical concepts--are always under construction. They are never wholly definable, and they defy the sort of categorical descriptions that are conventionally used in teaching: part of their meaning is always inherited from the contexts in which they are used.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The adequacy of the solution they reach becomes apparent in relation to the role it must play in allowing activity to continue.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conceptual tools similarly reflect the cumulative wisdom of the culture in which they are used and the insights and experience of individuals. Their meaning is not invariant but a product of negotiation within a culture and of practice in authentic activity.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They are not merely context sensitive; they are completely context dependent. They can only be understood in relation to specific situations, from which indexicals are, for the purposes of interpretation, inseparable.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“But words and sentences are not islands, entire unto themselves. They rely on the context in which they are used--and not just the linguistic context--to be understood.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Nunberg, 1978
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“He filled a measuring cup two-thirds full of cottage cheese, dumped it out on the cutting board, patted it into a circle, marked a cross on it, scooped away one quadrant, and served the rest.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lave (1988b)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Instead, it may be more useful to consider conceptual knowledge as in some ways similar to a set of tools.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Learning and acting are, as a result, interestingly indistinct, learning being a continuous, life-long process resulting from acting in situations.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Tools share several significant features with knowledge; in particular, both can be fully understood in use, and both, if fully understood, change the way their users look at the world.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Activity, concept, and culture are interdependent. No one can be totally understood without the other two. Learning must therefore involve all three.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“His class' goal, by contrast, is to understand the mathematical nature of magic squares, and it is in part by doing this that the belief system is exemplified.”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“So knowledge, which comes coded by and connected to the activity and environment in which it is developed, is spread across its component parts--some of which are in the mind and some in the world--as the final picture on a jigsaw is spread across its component pieces.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conversely, though schooling seeks to encourage problem solving, it disregards most of the inventive heuristics that students bring to the classroom.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“by pointing to different decompositions, it stresses that heuristics are not absolute, but assessed with respect to a particular task--and that even algorithms can be assessed in this way.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“by allowing students to generate their own solution paths, it helps make them conscious, creative members of the culture of problem-solving mathematicians.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Lampert (1986) also involves her students in mathematical exploration, which she tries to make continuous with their everyday knowledge.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lampert (1986) source
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“And, in enculturating through this activity, they acquire some of the culture's tools--a shared vocabulary and the means to discuss, reflect upon, evaluate, and validate community procedures in a collaborative process.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“The students start with an extended procedure that parallels the story problem above. Eventually they find ways to shorten the process, and they usually arrive at the standard algorithm, justifying their findings with the stories they had created earlier.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lampert
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the ensuing situations, the appropriateness of the word is tested and, as with all conceptual knowledge, each application has the potential to change an individual's understanding of both the word and the world --the two are interdependent.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“She tries to inculcate an inseparable understanding of all of these kinds of knowledge and the connections between them, and thus to bridge the huge gap that emerges from much conventional teaching between conceptual knowledge and problem-solving activity--between, as we characterized them at the beginning, knowing and doing.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lampert
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Thus, Lampert presents the algorithm as one more useful strategy to help them resolve community problems.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lampert
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“by beginning with a task embedded in a familiar activity, it shows the students the legitimacy of their implicit knowledge and its availability as scaffolding in apparently unfamiliar tasks.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indexical terms are virtually transparent. They, like a signpost, draw little or no attention to themselves.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Eagleton (1983) describes reading as just such an enriching process, through which people continually change how they read and this, in turn, changes what they are reading.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Eagleton (1983)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“By deliberately engaging students in authentic mathematical practice, he reaches well beyond the inculcation of problem-solving skills. His method, much more importantly, provides students with the opportunity to enter the culture of mathematical practice, which enables them to use those skills as practitioners.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Schoenfeld
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The class worked collectively through a number of strategies, in which, on reflection, they recognized more general and more powerful mathematical ideas.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Schoenfeld
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“prevalent school practices still broadly assume that knowledge is individual and self-structured, that schools are neutral with respect to what is learned in them, that concepts are abstract and immutable and independent of the activity in which they are acquired and used, and that JPF behavior is something to be discouraged.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Schoenfeld is careful to emphasize that all these strategies are illustrated in action, developed by the class, not declared by the teacher.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Schoenfeld
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Lave (1988c) describes how some students feel it necessary to disguise effective strategies so that teachers believe the problems have been solved in the school-approved way.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lave (1988c)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the terms of cognitive apprenticeship, we can represent the progress of the students from embedded activity to general principles of the culture as presented in Figure 3.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“The class went on to explore other possible magic squares and thereby discovered general principles (e.g., an algebraic form for describing them).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Schoenfeld
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As an indication that he is working in the culture of mathematics, not in the culture of schooling, he does not stop at what, in culture of school practice, marks the end: an answer.”
hedgedcorrelationalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Schoenfeld's teaching of problem solving (1985, in press) attempts to show college students how to think mathematically about the world, how to see the world through mathematicians' eyes, and thus how to use the mathematician's tools.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Schoenfeld (1985, in press) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Recurring features of the environment seem to afford recurrent sequences of actions.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This sort of dialectical process is common to all activity, and it similarly undermines any assumption that once conceptual knowledge has been described and applied in exercises, the task of teaching or learning has been finished.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Schoenfeld's approach, on the other hand, points in particular to the way in which students can be exposed to the authentic ways of thinking of a culture and its conceptual viewpoint, as much as to its subject matter.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A proposition, as we pointed out above, can only be correctly interpreted in the context of the situation in which it is used.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“And apprenticeship also suggests the paradigm of situated modeling, coaching, and fading (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989), whereby teachers or coaches promote learning first by modeling their strategies for students in authentic activity. Then teachers and colleagues support a student's attempts at doing the task. And finally they empower the student to coatinue independent of the teacher.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An epistemology that begins with activity and perception, which are first and foremost embedded in the world, may simply bypass the classical problem of reference--of mediating conceptual representations.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is at this stage, in short, that students no longer behave as archetypal students but participate in the activity of practitioners and develop their conceptual understanding through social interaction and collaboration in the culture of the domain, not of the school.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Lave (1988a) and Lave and Wenger (in preparation) point out the importance for apprentices of learning their craft in the appropriate community of practice, towards the center of which they continuously progress through gradual enculturation.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lave (1988a)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Lave and Wenger (in preparation)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This in turn fosters generalizing, grounded in the students' situated understanding.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These then occupy a place in our ontology and become something more to learn about rather than simply something useful in learning.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“groups of practitioners are particularly important, for it is only within groups that social interaction and conversation can take place.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, indexical representations seem to gain their efficiency by leaving a great deal of the context underrepresented or implicit.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper relies on this without support.
Most school activity exists in a culture of its own.
“The idea that most school activity exists in a culture of its own helps explain many of the difficulties of cultivating robust domain learning in school.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Schools demand a qualitative change in behavior.
“Schools do seem to demand a qualitative change in behavior, however.”
The paper relies on this without support.
What a student is expected to do and what a JPF does are significantly different.
“What the student is expected to do and what a JPF does are significantly different.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The school situation is extremely specialized.
“But the school situation is extremely specialized.”
The paper relies on this without support.
An unacknowledged dependency on school-based cues makes learning extremely fragile when viewed from outside school.
“Viewed from outside, where problems do not come in text books, an unacknowledged dependency on such school-based cues makes the learning extremely fragile.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Many professions with generally acknowledged cognitive content (e.g., law, medicine, architecture, business) have traditionally been learned through apprenticeship.
“Certainly many professions with generally acknowledged cognitive content--for example, law, medicine, architecture, business, etc.--have nonetheless traditionally been learned through apprenticeship.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Advanced graduate students in humanities, social sciences, and physical sciences acquire extremely refined research skills through apprenticeship with senior researchers.
“Moreover, advanced graduate students in the humanities, the social sciences, and the physical sciences, acquire their extremely refined research skills through the apprenticeship they serve with senior researchers.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Advanced graduate students, like all apprentices, must recognize and resolve ill-defined problems that issue out of authentic activity, in contrast to well-defined exercises typically given in textbooks and exams throughout earlier schooling.
“Then they, like all apprentices, must recognize and resolve the ill-defined problems that issue out of authentic activity, in contrast to the welldefined exercises that are typically given to them in text books and on exams throughout their earlier schooling.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Students who are taught individually rather than collaboratively can fail to develop skills needed for collaborative work.
“Students who are taught individually rather than collaboratively can fail to develop skills needed for collaborative work.”
The paper relies on this without support.
For centuries epistemologists have concentrated primarily on conceptual representation and its problematic relation to objects in the world, assuming that representation is cognitively prior to all else.
“For centuries epistemologists have concentrated primarily on conceptual representation and its problematic relation to objects in the world, assuming that representation is cognitively prior to all else.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Teachers rarely have the opportunity to hear enough of what students think to recognize when the information offered back by students is only a surface retelling for school purposes that may mask deep misconceptions about the physical world and problem-solving strategies.
“Teachers rarely have the opportunity to hear enough of what students think to recognize when the information that is offered back by students is only a surface retelling for school purposes (the handing back of an uncomprehended tool, as we described it at the beginning) that may mask deep misconceptions about the physical world and problem-solving strategies.”
The paper relies on this without support.
A common strategy in trying to overcome difficult pedagogic problems is to make as much as possible explicit.
“A common strategy in trying to overcome difficult pedagogic problems is to make as much as possible explicit.”
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In the citing paper
“Constructivist, situated, and sociocultural perspectives define learning as active meaning-making, participation in communities of practice, and identity development [24,25,56].”
From A Systematic Review of Generative AI in K–12: Mapping Goals, Activities, Roles, and Outcomes via the 3P Model (2025) · cites this paper as [56]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These presentations led to discussions helping teachers create authentic contexts for learning STEM content and practices (Brown et al., 1989; Bruner, 1996; Lave & Wenger, 1991).”
From Increasing high school teachers self-efficacy for integrated STEM instruction through a collaborative community of practice (2020) · cites this paper as Brown et al., 1989
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“On the other hand, VR allows one to experience a simulated environment in which users experience telepresence (Minocha et al., 2017) and is aligned with the theory of situated cognition (Brown et al., 1989).”
BackgroundIt feels so real! Situated authentic language learning in immersive virtual reality
Lee, S., Wang, X., Park, I., & Lestiono, R. (2024) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-024-12807-8 · Cited by 59
“Particularly, authentic context is imperative for language learning because language is inherently embedded in the context (Brown et al., 1989; Chun et al., 2022; Shih, 2015), and context frames human interactions, which is another key element for language learning (Yeh et al., 2020; Yoon, 2003).”
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“…has influenced educational thinking as an instructional model by effectively connecting the theoretical learning that takes place in classroom settings with the prac - tical application of that knowledge in real-world contexts (Brown et al. 1989; Ertmer and Newby 1993; Herrington and Oliver 2000).”
Using a design-based research study to identify principles for training instructors to teach online
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AS NOVAS TECNOLOGIAS NA PRÁTICA PEDAGÓGICA SOB A PERSPECTIVA CONSTRUTIVISTA
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“Here, knowledge is not independent, but instead is “ fundamentally [socially] situated, being in part a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it is developed (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989, p. 32) ” .”
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“Situated cognition (J. Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1996;”
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Korean Students' Perceptions of Scientific Practices and Understanding of Nature of Science
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“We agree that an understanding of the NOS shapes how students think about and criticize other types of knowledge; and therefore it enhances students’ learning about content knowledge (Brown et al., 1989).”
BackgroundTeacher Education: A Focus on Action
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Preservice Teachers’ Conceptions and Enactments of Project-Based Instruction
Marshall, J. A., Petrosino, A. J., & Martin, T. (2010) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-010-9206-y · Cited by 45
“Today’s science educators are called upon to engage their students in authentic, context-rich, activities (Brown et al. 1989) and inquiry focused on ‘‘questions generated from student experiences’’ and ‘‘real phenomena’’ (National Research Council 1996, p. 31).”
BackgroundLanguage Learning on the World Wide Web: An Investigation of EFL Learners' Attitudes and Perceptions
Yang, S. (2001) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.2190/vdjc-fgtq-79fh-m615 · Cited by 45
“As meaningful learning and knowing are integrally and inherently situated in the everyday world of human activity, learning must be embedded in relevant and authentic contexts by immersing learners in the “ordinary practice of the culture” [13].”
BackgroundHung, P., Hwang, G., Lee, Y.-H., Tsung‐Hsun, W., Vogel, B., Milrad, M., & Johansson, E. (2014) · Educational Technology & Society · Cited by 45
Kearney, S., Perkins, T. J., & Kennedy‐Clark, S. (2015) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2015.1039484 · Cited by 45
“Research has shown strong links between the implementation of authentic assessment, as defined here, and high-quality learning (Brown, Collins, and Duguid 1989; Darling-Hammond and Snyder 2000; Ridley and Stern 1998).”
BackgroundShahali, E. H. M., Halim, L., Treagust, D. F., Won, M., & Chandrasegaran, A. L. (2015) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-015-9500-z · Cited by 51
“Within this view is what Brown et al. (1989) refer to as authentic activities, through which learners experience and acquire both the procedural and conceptual knowledge of science.”
Johnston, D. H. (2015) · Cambridge Journal of Education · doi:10.1080/0305764x.2015.1069793 · Cited by 65
Perkins, D., & Ritchhart, R. (2004) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410610515-23 · Cited by 51
Investigating Mathematical Knowledge for Teaching Proof in Professional Development
Lesseig, K. (2016) · International Journal of Research in Education and Science · doi:10.21890/ijres.13913 · Cited by 47
Doing research in school: Physics inquiry in the zone of proximal development
Kapon, S. (2016) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21325 · Cited by 54
Undergraduate student construction and interpretation of graphs in physics lab activities
Nixon, R. S., Godfrey, T. J., Mayhew, N., & Wiegert, C. C. (2016) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.12.010104 · Cited by 51
Prins, G. T., Bulte, A., & Pilot, A. (2016) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.21247 · Cited by 44
Supporting Deep Engagement: The Teaching for Transformative Experiences in Science (TTES) Model
Pugh, K. J., Bergstrom, C. M., Heddy, B. C., & Krob, K. E. (2017) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2016.1277333 · Cited by 45
Educational Experiences and the Online Student
Steinman, D. (2007) · TechTrends · doi:10.1007/s11528-007-0069-x · Cited by 45
Living territories to transform the world
Caron, P., Valette, É., Wassenaar, T., D'Eeckenbrugge, G. C., & Papazian, V. (2017) · Éditions Quæ eBooks · doi:10.35690/978-2-7592-2731-0 · Cited by 57
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Eukel, H. N., Frenzel, J. E., Frazier, K. R., et al. (2020) · Simulation & Gaming · doi:10.1177/1046878119898509 · Cited by 45
“(Brown et al., 1989; Schank et al., 2009) NDSU, s shown in Table 1, the embedded objectives of the game were focused on the hands-on application of skills related to the treatment and management of diabetes.”
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Motivational factors and the experience of learning in educational leisure settings
Packer, J. (2004) · Cited by 45
Khare, A., & Lam, H. (2008) · International journal on e-learning · Cited by 45
Li, S., & Liu, Q. (2003) · Computer Applications in Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/cae.10052 · Cited by 45
Examining the Role of Manipulatives and Metacognition on Engagement, Learning, and Transfer
Belenky, D. M., & Nokes, T. J. (2009) · The Journal of Problem Solving · doi:10.7771/1932-6246.1061 · Cited by 50
Sustaining online teacher professional development through community design
Henderson, M. (2007) · Campus-Wide Information Systems · doi:10.1108/10650740710762202 · Cited by 44
“They are bound by intricate, socially constructed webs of belief, which are essential to understanding what they do” ( Brown et al. , 1989”
BackgroundPérez‐Sanagustín, M., Muñoz‐Merino, P. J., Alario‐Hoyos, C., et al. (2015) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2015.03.019 · Cited by 45
Rethinking the Professional Development of School Leaders
Kochan, F. K., Bredeson, P. V., & Riehl, C. J. (2002) · Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education · doi:10.1111/j.1744-7984.2002.tb00013.x · Cited by 45
Vanpee, D., Frenay, M., Godin, V., & Bédard, D. (2009) · Pédagogie médicale · doi:10.1051/pmed/20090330 · Cited by 52
“Le concept général de cognition contextualisée ou située (situated cognition) est tiré des travaux de Brown, Collins et Duguid et fait appel à deux idées majeures[14] : 1) le traitement de l’information est indissociable du contexte dans lequel il prend place et 2) le contexte d’apprentissage et d’enseignement influen…”
BackgroundIdentifying Cyclic Patterns of Interaction to Study Individual and Collective Learning
Bowers, J. S., & Nickerson, S. D. (2001) · Mathematical Thinking and Learning · doi:10.1207/s15327833mtl0301_01 · Cited by 45
Professional uncertainty and professional growth: A case study of experienced teachers
Lange, J. D., & Burroughs-Lange, S. (1994) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/0742-051x(94)90030-2 · Cited by 45
Educational Modelling Language
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Ho, C. M. L., Rappa, N. A., & Chee, Y. S. (2009) · Computer Assisted Language Learning · doi:10.1080/09588220903184732 · Cited by 47
“This reinforced Brown, Collins and Duguid's ( 1989 ) argument that knowledge was integral to the context and activity where learning occurred.”
BackgroundDifferential benefits of situated instructional prompts
Horz, H., Winter, C., & Fries, S. (2008) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.07.001 · Cited by 45
Cognitive Perspectives on School Leadership
Leithwood, K. A. (1995) · Journal of School Leadership · doi:10.1177/105268469500500201 · Cited by 45
Authentic activity and learning
Clayden, E., Desforges, C., Mills, C., et al. (1994) · British Journal of Educational Studies · doi:10.1080/00071005.1994.9973991 · Cited by 45
Saxe, G. B. (1994) · Mind Culture and Activity · doi:10.1080/10749039409524666 · Cited by 45
“The active scholarly interest in culture-cognition relations has led to the development and/or re-emergence of a wide range of constructs like cultural psychology (Cole, 1990, 1991; Shweder & Sullivan, in press), situated cognition ( Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989 ), distributed intelligence (Hutchins, 1991; Pea, 1994…”
BackgroundChapman, M. L. (1999) · Written Communication · doi:10.1177/0741088399016004003 · Cited by 47
Han, S. Y., & Hill, J. R. (2007) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.2190/a138-6k63-7432-hl10 · Cited by 46
“…WBLEs can represent the foundational ideas of social learning theories: learning occurs in the community (Wenger, 1998), students’ learning is situated in social/cultural context (Brown et al., 1989), and the learning process and outcome is shared/distributed across the learners (Salomon, 1993).”
BackgroundPedagogies for lifelong learning
Zukas, M., & Malcolm, J. (2001) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203996287-17 · Cited by 45
Tacit Pedagogical Knowing: At the Core of Teacher’s Professionality
Toom, A. (2008) · Työväentutkimus Vuosikirja · Cited by 45
Speakers and doers : polyphony and agency in children's beliefs about language learning
Aro, M. (2009) · Jyväskylä University Digital Archive (University of Jyväskylä) · Cited by 46
Crafting Public Narrative to Enable Collective Action: A Pedagogy for Leadership Development
Ganz, M., Lee, J., Ben‐Ezer, I., & Segura, A. (2022) · Academy of Management Learning and Education · doi:10.5465/amle.2020.0224 · Cited by 52
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“Emphasizing immersion and real-world applications, the online courses were developed within a situated cognition theory (SCT) for e-learning experience design (Brown et al., 1989).”
BackgroundSelf-directed language learning with Duolingo in an out-of-class context
Li, Z., & Bonk, C. J. (2023) · Computer Assisted Language Learning · doi:10.1080/09588221.2023.2206874 · Cited by 60
“(P3) Given that knowledge derives from the individual’s cultural and historical practices (Danish & Gresalfi, 2018), learning without context leads to gaps between ‘know what’ and ‘know how’ (Brown et al., 1989).”
Faculty–student coauthorship as a means to enhance STEM graduate students’ research skills
Feldon, D. F., Shukla, K. D., & Maher, M. (2016) · International Journal for Researcher Development · doi:10.1108/ijrd-10-2015-0027 · Cited by 45
Advancing Quality Cultures for Teacher Education in Europe: Tensions and Opportunities
Hudson, B., Zgaga, P., & Åstrand, B. (2010) · Sussex Research Online (University of Sussex) · doi:10.13140/rg.2.1.4022.7282 · Cited by 44
Authentic Learning in a Sociocultural Framework: A case study on non‐formal learning
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“In a study on adult learning in everyday situations Larsson (1996) stressed that our individual experiences of different places, our life history as well as our social life, influence the way that we look at reality.”
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Choi, H. J., & Yang, M. (2010) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10734-010-9403-x · Cited by 45
“Some learning theorists recommend that educational practitioners should take a constructivist learning approach in order to create the learning environment to solve the problem presented above (Brown et al. 1989; Jonassen et al. 1995).”
BackgroundDeveloping interprofessional health competencies in a virtual world
King, S., Chodos, D., Stroulia, E., et al. (2012) · Medical Education Online · doi:10.3402/meo.v17i0.11213 · Cited by 44
Elliott, C. J., & Goh, S. C. (2013) · Journal of Management Development · doi:10.1108/jmd-03-2011-0028 · Cited by 44
An investigation on nursing, midwifery and health care students’ learning motivation in Turkey
Köşgeroğlu, N., Acat, M. B., Ayrancı, Ü., et al. (2008) · Nurse Education in Practice · doi:10.1016/j.nepr.2008.07.003 · Cited by 45
“We may categorize another theories into: problem-based learning, an instructional method of hands-on, active learning centered on the investigation and resolution of messy, realworld problems (Hmelo-Silver, 2004); experiential learning, a four-stage cyclical theory of learning, a holistic perspective that combines exp…”
BackgroundMethodBeing a Teacher Educator: Exploring Issues of Authenticity and Safety Through Self-Study
Garbett, D., & Ovens, A. P. (2012) · The Australian journal of teacher education · doi:10.14221/ajte.2012v37n3.3 · Cited by 44
“Any authentic practice setting would need to share the same contextual features as the one being referred to (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989).”
Truscott, S. D., Kreskey, D., Bolling, M., Psimas, L., Graybill, E. C., Albritton, K., & Schwartz, A. J. (2012) · Consulting psychology journal · doi:10.1037/a0027997 · Cited by 53
“Brown et al. (1989) defined situated cognition as the practice of acquiring new knowledge and skills in authentic settings that reflect the real world.”
BackgroundHuman-Centered Interactivity of Visualization Tools: Micro- and Macro-level Considerations
Sedig, K., Parsons, P., Dittmer, M., & Haworth, R. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-7485-2_29 · Cited by 44
Factors Affecting Students’ Continued Usage Intention Toward Business Simulation Games
Liao, Y., Huang, Y., & Wang, Y. (2015) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.1177/0735633115598751 · Cited by 51
“Therefore, simulation games that combine story scenarios and backed by situated learning theory (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989) may promote learners’ motivation and learning transfer in a subsequent realistic context (Hou, 2015).”
BackgroundSelecting Expertise in Context
Wilhelm, A. G., Chen, I., Smith, T. M., & Frank, K. A. (2016) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/0002831216637351 · Cited by 45
Steghöfer, J.-P., Knauss, E., Alégroth, E., et al. (2016) · doi:10.1145/2889160.2889181 · Cited by 44
“This guided teaching is in line with a workshop environment where the teachers act as masters , coaching the students in a setting scaffolded to emphasise learning Scrum — not the tools — and facilitate in the students reflections [7] in-action [24].”
BackgroundMethodMaking Sense of Space: Distributed Spatial Sensemaking in a Middle School Summer Engineering Camp
Ramey, K. E., & Uttal, D. H. (2017) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1080/10508406.2016.1277226 · Cited by 56
Mobile-Assisted Language Learning
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Hedegaard, M. (2018) · Learning Culture and Social Interaction · doi:10.1016/j.lcsi.2018.04.008 · Cited by 44
Journeying Towards the Profession: Exploring Liminal Learning within Mixed Reality Simulations
Piro, J. S., & O'Callaghan, C. M. (2018) · Action in Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/01626620.2018.1534221 · Cited by 47
Toward a trialogical approach to learning
Hakkarainen, K., & Paavola, S. (2009) · doi:10.4324/9780203879276-9 · Cited by 44
Farrell, C. (2020) · The International Journal of Management Education · doi:10.1016/j.ijme.2020.100362 · Cited by 49
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“In the early 1990s, studies of learning and cognition in the field of educational psychology became heavily influenced by examining the effects of the social and its context on the learner and their learning [29,40].”
BackgroundImproving Children's Cultural Heritage Experience Using Game-based Learning at a Living Museum
Othman, M. K., Aman, S., Anuar, N. N., & Ahmad, I. (2021) · Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage · doi:10.1145/3453073 · Cited by 45
“The study in the wild is a current approach in Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) as researchers move from controlled, lab-based experiments to the real settings as explained by Brown et al. [2011], Chamberlain et al. [2012], and Rogers and Marshall [2017]. This paradigm shift is to help researchers and developers to be…”
BackgroundInfluentialBuilding Interaction in Online and Distance Education Courses
Kirby, E. A. (1999) · Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference · Cited by 44
The role of gamification and game-based learning in authentic assessment within virtual environments
Wood, L. C., Teräs, H., Reiners, T., & Gregory, S. (2013) · Tuwhera (Auckland University of Technology) · doi:10.13140/2.1.3890.5282 · Cited by 43
From Medicine to Teaching: The Evolution of the Simulated Interaction Model
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“Building upon the work of others (Brown et al. 1989; Korthagen and Kessels 1999; Lave and Wenger 1991; Putnam and Borko 2000; Wenger 1998), we suggest that the theoretical framework of situated cognition offers significant potential for improving the preparation of teachers and school leaders.”
BackgroundConnecting education and practice in an instructional design graduate program
Quinn, J. (1994) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02298096 · Cited by 44
“Research on the acquisition of procedural knowledge suggests that such knowledge is learned and transformed into useful forms principally through practice (GagnG 1985; Lesgold et al., 1988, Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1990).”
BackgroundTranslating Comments on Student Evaluations into the Language of Learning
Hodges, L. C., & Stanton, K. (2006) · Innovative Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10755-006-9027-3 · Cited by 44
“Some versions of constructivist theory draw on the research in situated cognition ( Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Lave, 1988), which emphasizes the importance of students working together with an expert or other learners on authentic tasks in relevant situations to maximize learning.”
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Learning to Talk Like a Teacher: Participation and Negotiation in Co-planning Discourse
Smith, E. R. (2005) · Communication Education · doi:10.1080/03634520500076778 · Cited by 48
Borthwick, F., Lefoe, G., Bennett, S., & Huber, E. (2007) · Journal of Learning Design · doi:10.5204/jld.v2i1.24 · Cited by 44
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“There is growing evidence that authentic learning activities and contexts are closely connected to cognition and learning outcomes ( Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989 ),”
BackgroundCritique in academic disciplines and active learning of academic content
Ford, M. J. (2010) · Cambridge Journal of Education · doi:10.1080/0305764x.2010.502885 · Cited by 47
Primary Connections: Simulating the Classroom in Initial Teacher Education
Hume, A. (2011) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-011-9210-0 · Cited by 48
“In a process involving legitimate peripheral participation in authentic settings (Brown et al. 1980; Lave and Wenger 1991; Resnick 1987) the apprentice (the learner) is progressively inducted into a community of practice by an expert (the teacher).”
Learning from instruction: the case of mathematics
Corte, E. D. (2007) · Learning Inquiry · doi:10.1007/s11519-007-0002-4 · Cited by 44
Preparedness for flexible delivery among vocational learners
Smith, P. J. (2000) · Distance Education · doi:10.1080/0158791000210103 · Cited by 47
Using a game environment to foster collaborative learning: a design‐based study
Hämäläinen, R. (2011) · Technology Pedagogy and Education · doi:10.1080/1475939x.2011.554010 · Cited by 54
“Group‐level tasks are designed to promote particular collaborative activities (phase 2: distributing expertise [eg, Price, Rogers, Stanton, & Smith, 2003 ], phase 3: coordination of activities [eg, Brown & Campione, 1994 ], phase 4: solving an open problem [eg, Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989 ], and phase 6: solving a…”
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Partin, M. L., & Haney, J. J. (2012) · Learning Environments Research · doi:10.1007/s10984-012-9102-x · Cited by 45
“Situated cognition theory (Brown et al., 1989) asserts that what people learn is fundamentally situated within the context in which they learned it.”
BackgroundInformation presentation and troubleshooting in electrical circuits
Kester, L., Kirschner, P. A., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2004) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/69032000072809 · Cited by 44
“Consistent with this view, learning must be situated in a rich context (Brown et al. 1989), reflective of real world contexts, for this constructive process to occur and for transfer to environments beyond the school to be possible.”
BackgroundGoldsworthy, R. C., Barab, S. A., & Goldsworthy, E. L. (2000) · Journal of Special Education Technology · doi:10.1177/016264340001500202 · Cited by 44
An Exploration of Community in a Knowledge Forum Classroom
Hewitt, J. (2004) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511805080.012 · Cited by 45
Dimensions of effective interactive learning with telematics for distance education
Oliver, R., & Reeves, T. C. (1996) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02299820 · Cited by 45
“removed as they are from real world experience (cf., Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989 ).”
BackgroundA Vision of Learning to Teach for the 21st Century
Lappan, G. (2000) · School Science and Mathematics · doi:10.1111/j.1949-8594.2000.tb17326.x · Cited by 44
Supporting Collaborative Project Teams Using Computer-Based Technologies
Bennett, S. (2004) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-59140-174-2.ch001 · Cited by 44
Pedagogic Approaches to Using Technology for Learning Literature Review
Attwell, G., & Hughes, J. D. (2010) · Digital Education Resource Archive (University College London) · Cited by 44
Wesselink, R. (2010) · doi:10.18174/151085 · Cited by 44
Ethnographies of Translation and Situated Cognition
Risku, H. (2017) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119241485.ch16 · Cited by 47
Disaffected learners and school musical culture: an opportunity for inclusion
Rusinek, G. (2008) · Research Studies in Music Education · doi:10.1177/1321103x08089887 · Cited by 47
Metadata
- Authors
- Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P.
- Affiliations
- Institute for Research on Learning, 2550 Hanover Street, Palo Alto, California 94304.
- BBN Inc, 10 Moulton Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02238
- Venue
- Educational Researcher
- Published
- 1989-01
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 32-42
- ISSN
- 0013-189X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-102X
- OpenAlex
- W2164599981
- Cited by
- 13,645
- References
- 44
- Citations by year
- 2026: 324 · 2025: 322 · 2024: 255 · 2023: 271 · 2022: 384 · 2021: 446 · 2020: 520 · 2019: 472 · 2018: 467 · 2017: 513 · 2016: 525 · 2015: 585 · 2014: 628 · 2013: 637 · 2012: 651
- FWCI
- 128.32
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Locations
- Educational Researcher (publishedVersion)
- Illinois Digital Environment for Access to Learning and Scholarship (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Innovative Education and Learning Practices
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Educational Theory and Curriculum Studies
- Keywords
- situated cognition, learning culture, cognitive apprenticeship, situated knowledge, school culture, mathematics education, conceptual knowledge, everyday cognition, teaching practice
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-10, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-10 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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