The DOI matches its Crossref record; 46 of the 46 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 2 of the 50 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning
Open accessAbstract
Many teaching practices implicitly assume that conceptual knowledge can be abstracted from the situations in which it is learned and used. This article argues that this assumption inevitably limits the effectiveness of such practices. Drawing on recent research into cognition as it is manifest in everyday activity, the authors argue that knowledge is situated, being in part a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it is developed and used. They discuss how this view of knowledge affects our understanding of learning, and they note that conventional schooling too often ignores the influence of school culture on what is learned in school. As an alternative to conventional practices, they propose cognitive apprenticeship (Collins, Brown, & Newman, in press), which honors the situated nature of knowledge. They examine two examples of mathematics instruction that exhibit certain key features of this approach to teaching.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
The paper argues that knowledge is fundamentally situated—partly a product of activity, context, and culture—so teaching methods that treat concepts as abstract, self-contained, and transferable are often misleading and ineffective. As an alternative, it proposes “cognitive apprenticeship,” illustrated through two mathematics teaching examples.
Key findings
- Knowledge is not independent of situations; it is a co-production of mind and world, and abstraction/explication provides an “inherently impoverished and often misleading” view of knowledge.
- Vocabulary taught from dictionary definitions is slow and unsuccessful: the average 17-year-old learns vocabulary at 5,000 words per year (13 per day) over 16 years through listening, talking, and reading, whereas classroom definition-based teaching can cover only 100 to 200 words per year and produces errors such as “I was meticulous about falling off the cliff.”
- Learning is a process of enculturation into authentic activity and culture; school activity is often “ersatz” and self-confirming, so success in school may have little bearing on performance elsewhere.
- Cognitive apprenticeship—using modeling, coaching, fading, social interaction, and collaboration—can enculturate students into authentic practices; the paper examines Schoenfeld’s magic-square problem-solving class and Lampert’s fourth-grade multiplication teaching through coin problems and student-generated stories.
Methods
- Conceptual and theoretical paper, not an empirical study; it synthesizes research on everyday cognition, apprenticeship, situated learning, indexicality, and enculturation.
- Uses illustrative cases and examples, including Miller and Gildea’s vocabulary teaching, Lave’s Weight Watchers cottage-cheese problem, Schoenfeld’s mathematics teaching, and Lampert’s multiplication teaching.
- Main analysis is argumentative: it contrasts JPF, student, and practitioner activity (Table 1) and proposes cognitive apprenticeship as an alternative to conventional didactic schooling.
Limitations
- Stated: the authors describe the exploration as “consciously speculative” and “admittedly tentative”; they say the paper does not attempt a historical survey or critical analysis, and that “major theoretical work” on situated cognition remains to be done.
- Stated: future work must frame the relationship between explicit knowledge and implicit understanding.
- Evident: the paper presents no controlled outcome data or systematic evaluation; its claims about transfer, school culture, and cognitive apprenticeship rest on conceptual argument and illustrative examples.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
118 Own interpretation · 41 Sources not found · 4 No full text of the sources · 2 No basis given · 1 Partly supported · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“We know from an extensive literature on the subject (diSessa, 1982, 1983, 1986; McCloskey, Caramazza, & Green, 1980; White, 1983) that students have many misconceptions about qualitative phenomena in physics.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites diSessa, 1982, 1983, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Supportedcites McCloskey, Caramazza, & Green, 1980 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
McCloskey, Caramazza, and Green (1980) is cited as one work in a broader literature supporting the sentence, not as evidence for every misconception in physics. A Semantic Scholar snippet from “Overcoming University Students’ Alternative Conceptions in Newtonian Mechanics” (score 0.493) explicitly attributes undergraduate students’ mistaken predictions about curvilinear motion to McCloskey et al. (1980). The cited paper therefore supports the claim through a concrete example, although paper-scoped searches returned no full-text snippets. (LLM, conf=0.79)
- Could not verifycites White, 1983 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The supplied source, D. W. R. White’s 1983 paper “Plant Regeneration from Mesophyll Protoplasts of White Clover,” concerns plant regeneration, not physics education. Two searches within that paper returned no snippets, but the absence of accessible text prevents a definitive finding about its contents. An unscoped search found only lower-scoring discussions of physics misconceptions in other papers, not a sufficiently strong match to identify the intended White (1983) source. The citation appears mismatched, but the evidence does not meet the threshold for a misattribution verdict. (LLM, conf=0.75)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The occasions and conditions for use arise directly out of the context of activities of each community or culture that uses the tool, framed by the way members of that culture see the world.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Miller and Gildea's (1987) work on vocabulary teaching shows how the assumption that knowing and doing can be separated leads to a teaching method that ignores the way situations structure cognition.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Miller and Gildea (1987) source
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In the paper
“Miller and Gildea note that by listening, talking, and reading the average 17-year-old has learned vocabulary at a rate of 5,000 words per year (13 per day) for over 16 years.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Miller and Gildea
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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- Not matched
In the paper
“Language use would involve an unremitting confrontation with ambiguity, polysemy, nuance, metaphor, etc., were it not for the extralinguistic help that the context of an utterance provides (Nunberg, 1978).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Nunberg, 1978
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Similarly, it is common for students to acquire algorithms, routines, and decontextualized definitions that they cannot use and that therefore lie inert.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To develop this comparison between tools and knowledge, between manual tools and conceptual tools, a little further, it can be noted that learning how to use a tool involves far more than can be accounted for in any set of explicit rules.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“They are bound by intricate, socially constructed webs of belief, which make it possible to see them as cultures (Geertz, 1983), and which are essential to interpreting what they do.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Geertz, 1983
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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In the paper
“Because new situations, negotiations, and activities inevitably recast them in a new, more densely textured form, concepts continually evolve with each new occasion of use.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The authors examine one such method and argue that its lack of success is a direct result of this assumption.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“There is barely enough classroom time, Miller and Gildea suggest, to teach more than 100 to 200 words per year.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Miller and Gildea
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Many teaching methods implicitly assume that conceptual knowledge is independent of the situations in which it is learned and used.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“By contrast, learning words from definitions and sentences abstracted from the context of normal communication, the way vocabulary has often been taught, is slow and unsuccessful.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Miller and Gildea
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Knowledge, we claim, is partially embedded in the social and physical world.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“It is impossible to capture the densely interwoven nature of conceptual knowledge completely in explicit, abstract accounts.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Learning is the process of constructing robust understanding out of this sort of embedded activity.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Teaching methods, however, often try to impart abstracted conceptual tools as fixed, well-defined, independent entities that can be explored in prototypical examples and textbook exercises.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“And these embedding circumstances allow people to share the burden of solving problems efficiently.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Knowledge is fundamentally a co-production of the mind and the world, which like woof and warp need each other to produce texture and to complete an otherwise incoherent pattern.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Teaching, however, often overlooks the central, but restrictive, contribution made by the activities, context, and culture of schools to what is learned there.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“And the general strategies for intuitive reasoning, resolving issues, and negotiating meaning that people develop through everyday activity are superseded by the precise, well-defined problems, formal definitions, and symbol manipulation that characterize much school activity.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such ploys indicate how thoroughly learners really are situated, and how they always lean on the embedding context for help.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“So even though students are expected to behave differently, they inevitably do behave like the JPFs they are and solve most of their problems in their own situated way.”
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In the paper
“To learn to use tools as practitioners use them, students, like apprentices, must be enabled to enter that community and its culture.”
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In the paper
“Unfortunately, students are too often presented with only a part of this complex.”
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In the paper
“The issues and problems that they face arise out of, are defined by, and are resolved within the constraints of their belief system and the activity they are pursuing.”
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In the paper
“Though these are often anathema to traditional schooling, they are an essential component of social interaction and thus of learning.”
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In the paper
“Within a culture, ideas are exchanged and modified and belief systems developed and appropriated in part through conversation and narratives”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Learning is instead a continual process needing above all authentic activity to support its development.”
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In the paper
“From here, students can, as we have suggested, use their fledgling conceptual knowledge to see their activity in a new light, which in turn leads to the further development of the conceptual knowledge, and so on.”
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In the paper
“When descriptions replace indexical terms (which is analogous, we hold, to classroom descriptions of activity replacing activity), the nature of discourse changes and understanding becomes much more problematic.”
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In the paper
“The social network within the culture helps them develop its language and the belief systems and promotes the process of enculturation.”
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In the paper
“They need to observe how qualified practitioners behave and talk to get a sense of how expertise is manifest in conversation and other activities.”
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In the paper
“Collaboration also leads to the articulation or manifestation of strategies, which can then be discussed and reflected on.”
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In the paper
“If, as we propose, learning is a process of enculturating that is supported in part through social interaction and the circulation of narrative”
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In the paper
“As the students gain more self-confidence and control, they move into a more autonomous phase of collaborative learning, where they begin to participate consciously in the culture.”
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In the paper
“The group, however, permits different roles to be displayed and engenders reflective narratives and discussions about the aptness of those roles.”
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In the paper
“In this sequence, apprenticeship and coaching begin by providing modeling in situ and scaffolding for students to get started in an authentic activity.”
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In the paper
“The belief system is instilled in the only way it can be, through practice in which the students actively take part.”
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In the paper
“In language learning, for example, the original frail understanding of a word is developed and extended through subsequent use and social negotiation, though each use is no less situated.”
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In the paper
“Successful execution of most individual tasks requires students to understand the many different roles needed for carrying out that task.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This further suggests that a new epistemology might hold the key to a dramatic improvement in learning and completely new insights into education.”
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In the paper
“In educational terms alone, however, the unheralded importance of activity and enculturation to learning suggests that much common practice is the product of an inadequate epistemology.”
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In the paper
“All knowledge is, we believe, like language. Its constituent parts index the world and so are inextricably a product of the activity and situations in which they are produced and used.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus all concepts--even apparently well-defined, abstract technical concepts--are always under construction. They are never wholly definable, and they defy the sort of categorical descriptions that are conventionally used in teaching: part of their meaning is always inherited from the contexts in which they are used.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The adequacy of the solution they reach becomes apparent in relation to the role it must play in allowing activity to continue.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conceptual tools similarly reflect the cumulative wisdom of the culture in which they are used and the insights and experience of individuals. Their meaning is not invariant but a product of negotiation within a culture and of practice in authentic activity.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They are not merely context sensitive; they are completely context dependent. They can only be understood in relation to specific situations, from which indexicals are, for the purposes of interpretation, inseparable.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“But words and sentences are not islands, entire unto themselves. They rely on the context in which they are used--and not just the linguistic context--to be understood.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Nunberg, 1978
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“He filled a measuring cup two-thirds full of cottage cheese, dumped it out on the cutting board, patted it into a circle, marked a cross on it, scooped away one quadrant, and served the rest.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lave (1988b)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Instead, it may be more useful to consider conceptual knowledge as in some ways similar to a set of tools.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Learning and acting are, as a result, interestingly indistinct, learning being a continuous, life-long process resulting from acting in situations.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Tools share several significant features with knowledge; in particular, both can be fully understood in use, and both, if fully understood, change the way their users look at the world.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Activity, concept, and culture are interdependent. No one can be totally understood without the other two. Learning must therefore involve all three.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“His class' goal, by contrast, is to understand the mathematical nature of magic squares, and it is in part by doing this that the belief system is exemplified.”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“So knowledge, which comes coded by and connected to the activity and environment in which it is developed, is spread across its component parts--some of which are in the mind and some in the world--as the final picture on a jigsaw is spread across its component pieces.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conversely, though schooling seeks to encourage problem solving, it disregards most of the inventive heuristics that students bring to the classroom.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“by pointing to different decompositions, it stresses that heuristics are not absolute, but assessed with respect to a particular task--and that even algorithms can be assessed in this way.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“by allowing students to generate their own solution paths, it helps make them conscious, creative members of the culture of problem-solving mathematicians.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Lampert (1986) also involves her students in mathematical exploration, which she tries to make continuous with their everyday knowledge.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lampert (1986) source
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“And, in enculturating through this activity, they acquire some of the culture's tools--a shared vocabulary and the means to discuss, reflect upon, evaluate, and validate community procedures in a collaborative process.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“The students start with an extended procedure that parallels the story problem above. Eventually they find ways to shorten the process, and they usually arrive at the standard algorithm, justifying their findings with the stories they had created earlier.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lampert
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the ensuing situations, the appropriateness of the word is tested and, as with all conceptual knowledge, each application has the potential to change an individual's understanding of both the word and the world --the two are interdependent.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“She tries to inculcate an inseparable understanding of all of these kinds of knowledge and the connections between them, and thus to bridge the huge gap that emerges from much conventional teaching between conceptual knowledge and problem-solving activity--between, as we characterized them at the beginning, knowing and doing.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lampert
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Thus, Lampert presents the algorithm as one more useful strategy to help them resolve community problems.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lampert
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“by beginning with a task embedded in a familiar activity, it shows the students the legitimacy of their implicit knowledge and its availability as scaffolding in apparently unfamiliar tasks.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indexical terms are virtually transparent. They, like a signpost, draw little or no attention to themselves.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Eagleton (1983) describes reading as just such an enriching process, through which people continually change how they read and this, in turn, changes what they are reading.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Eagleton (1983)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“By deliberately engaging students in authentic mathematical practice, he reaches well beyond the inculcation of problem-solving skills. His method, much more importantly, provides students with the opportunity to enter the culture of mathematical practice, which enables them to use those skills as practitioners.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Schoenfeld
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The class worked collectively through a number of strategies, in which, on reflection, they recognized more general and more powerful mathematical ideas.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Schoenfeld
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“prevalent school practices still broadly assume that knowledge is individual and self-structured, that schools are neutral with respect to what is learned in them, that concepts are abstract and immutable and independent of the activity in which they are acquired and used, and that JPF behavior is something to be discouraged.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Schoenfeld is careful to emphasize that all these strategies are illustrated in action, developed by the class, not declared by the teacher.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Schoenfeld
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Lave (1988c) describes how some students feel it necessary to disguise effective strategies so that teachers believe the problems have been solved in the school-approved way.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lave (1988c)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the terms of cognitive apprenticeship, we can represent the progress of the students from embedded activity to general principles of the culture as presented in Figure 3.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“The class went on to explore other possible magic squares and thereby discovered general principles (e.g., an algebraic form for describing them).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Schoenfeld
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As an indication that he is working in the culture of mathematics, not in the culture of schooling, he does not stop at what, in culture of school practice, marks the end: an answer.”
hedgedcorrelationalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Schoenfeld's teaching of problem solving (1985, in press) attempts to show college students how to think mathematically about the world, how to see the world through mathematicians' eyes, and thus how to use the mathematician's tools.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Schoenfeld (1985, in press) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Recurring features of the environment seem to afford recurrent sequences of actions.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This sort of dialectical process is common to all activity, and it similarly undermines any assumption that once conceptual knowledge has been described and applied in exercises, the task of teaching or learning has been finished.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Schoenfeld's approach, on the other hand, points in particular to the way in which students can be exposed to the authentic ways of thinking of a culture and its conceptual viewpoint, as much as to its subject matter.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A proposition, as we pointed out above, can only be correctly interpreted in the context of the situation in which it is used.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“And apprenticeship also suggests the paradigm of situated modeling, coaching, and fading (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989), whereby teachers or coaches promote learning first by modeling their strategies for students in authentic activity. Then teachers and colleagues support a student's attempts at doing the task. And finally they empower the student to coatinue independent of the teacher.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An epistemology that begins with activity and perception, which are first and foremost embedded in the world, may simply bypass the classical problem of reference--of mediating conceptual representations.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is at this stage, in short, that students no longer behave as archetypal students but participate in the activity of practitioners and develop their conceptual understanding through social interaction and collaboration in the culture of the domain, not of the school.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Lave (1988a) and Lave and Wenger (in preparation) point out the importance for apprentices of learning their craft in the appropriate community of practice, towards the center of which they continuously progress through gradual enculturation.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lave (1988a)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Lave and Wenger (in preparation)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This in turn fosters generalizing, grounded in the students' situated understanding.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These then occupy a place in our ontology and become something more to learn about rather than simply something useful in learning.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“groups of practitioners are particularly important, for it is only within groups that social interaction and conversation can take place.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, indexical representations seem to gain their efficiency by leaving a great deal of the context underrepresented or implicit.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper relies on this without support.
Most school activity exists in a culture of its own.
“The idea that most school activity exists in a culture of its own helps explain many of the difficulties of cultivating robust domain learning in school.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Schools demand a qualitative change in behavior.
“Schools do seem to demand a qualitative change in behavior, however.”
The paper relies on this without support.
What a student is expected to do and what a JPF does are significantly different.
“What the student is expected to do and what a JPF does are significantly different.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The school situation is extremely specialized.
“But the school situation is extremely specialized.”
The paper relies on this without support.
An unacknowledged dependency on school-based cues makes learning extremely fragile when viewed from outside school.
“Viewed from outside, where problems do not come in text books, an unacknowledged dependency on such school-based cues makes the learning extremely fragile.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Many professions with generally acknowledged cognitive content (e.g., law, medicine, architecture, business) have traditionally been learned through apprenticeship.
“Certainly many professions with generally acknowledged cognitive content--for example, law, medicine, architecture, business, etc.--have nonetheless traditionally been learned through apprenticeship.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Advanced graduate students in humanities, social sciences, and physical sciences acquire extremely refined research skills through apprenticeship with senior researchers.
“Moreover, advanced graduate students in the humanities, the social sciences, and the physical sciences, acquire their extremely refined research skills through the apprenticeship they serve with senior researchers.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Advanced graduate students, like all apprentices, must recognize and resolve ill-defined problems that issue out of authentic activity, in contrast to well-defined exercises typically given in textbooks and exams throughout earlier schooling.
“Then they, like all apprentices, must recognize and resolve the ill-defined problems that issue out of authentic activity, in contrast to the welldefined exercises that are typically given to them in text books and on exams throughout their earlier schooling.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Students who are taught individually rather than collaboratively can fail to develop skills needed for collaborative work.
“Students who are taught individually rather than collaboratively can fail to develop skills needed for collaborative work.”
The paper relies on this without support.
For centuries epistemologists have concentrated primarily on conceptual representation and its problematic relation to objects in the world, assuming that representation is cognitively prior to all else.
“For centuries epistemologists have concentrated primarily on conceptual representation and its problematic relation to objects in the world, assuming that representation is cognitively prior to all else.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Teachers rarely have the opportunity to hear enough of what students think to recognize when the information offered back by students is only a surface retelling for school purposes that may mask deep misconceptions about the physical world and problem-solving strategies.
“Teachers rarely have the opportunity to hear enough of what students think to recognize when the information that is offered back by students is only a surface retelling for school purposes (the handing back of an uncomprehended tool, as we described it at the beginning) that may mask deep misconceptions about the physical world and problem-solving strategies.”
The paper relies on this without support.
A common strategy in trying to overcome difficult pedagogic problems is to make as much as possible explicit.
“A common strategy in trying to overcome difficult pedagogic problems is to make as much as possible explicit.”
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In the citing paper
“Constructivist, situated, and sociocultural perspectives define learning as active meaning-making, participation in communities of practice, and identity development [24,25,56].”
From A Systematic Review of Generative AI in K–12: Mapping Goals, Activities, Roles, and Outcomes via the 3P Model (2025) · cites this paper as [56]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These presentations led to discussions helping teachers create authentic contexts for learning STEM content and practices (Brown et al., 1989; Bruner, 1996; Lave & Wenger, 1991).”
From Increasing high school teachers self-efficacy for integrated STEM instruction through a collaborative community of practice (2020) · cites this paper as Brown et al., 1989
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BackgroundA proposed sequence for developing systems thinking in a grades 4—12 curriculum
Draper, F. D. (1993) · System Dynamics Review · doi:10.1002/sdr.4260090209 · Cited by 48
“In general, the activities that have been most successful in generating systems thinking are authentically situated (Brown et al. 1989; Draper 1992); mindful of the sorts of deliberate or accidental academic tasks teachers set up for students (see Doyle 1983); and curriculum- and content-based…”
BackgroundJärvelä, S., Lehtinen, E., & Salonen, P. (2000) · Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/713696677 · Cited by 48
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Integrating the Real Estate Curriculum
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“Lave and Wenger (1991), Wenger (1998) and Brown, Collins, and Duguid (1989) amongst others.”
BackgroundExpert and Novice Recognition of Similar Situations
Federico, P.-A. (1995) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1518/001872095779049471 · Cited by 47
Comprehensive, Technology-Based Clinical Education: The “Virtual Practicum”
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“Several lines of evidence and educational theory, in addition to Schön, support the use of mentors as role models and guides in this way [45].”
ResultReview of educational use of games and simulations.
Leemkuil, H. H., de Jong, T., & Ootes, S. A. W. (2000) · University of Twente Research Information · Cited by 55
A conceptual framework for serious games and its validation
Yusoff, A. (2010) · ePrints Soton (University of Southampton) · Cited by 48
Redesigning Online Learning for International Graduate Seminar Delivery.
Power, M., & Vaughan, N. D. (2010) · Cited by 47
Takeuchi, M. A. (2015) · Journal of Language Identity & Education · doi:10.1080/15348458.2015.1041341 · Cited by 62
Peer learning in higher education: Patterns of talk and interaction in skills centre simulation
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Faculty Development: Core Concepts and Principles
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“On the other hand, main issues of the adoption of QR codes in learning could be: (1) mobile Internet too slow, (2) mobile Internet too expensive, (3) software, (4) identical twins, (5) lighting, (6) complicated process.”
BackgroundApplying lessons from professional education to the preparation of the professoriate
Golde, C. M. (2008) · New Directions for Teaching and Learning · doi:10.1002/tl.305 · Cited by 47
Vázquez, A. V., McLoughlin, K. C., Sabbagh, M., Runkle, A. C., Simon, J., Coppola, B. P., & Pazicni, S. (2012) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/ed200410k · Cited by 48
Supporting the acquisition of Japanese polite expressions in context-aware ubiquitous learning
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“Brown et al. (1989) define authentic learning as coherent, meaningful and purposeful activities.”
BackgroundTransformative Learning through Virtual Patient Simulations: Predicting Critical Student Reflections
Kleinheksel, A. J. (2014) · Clinical Simulation in Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.ecns.2014.02.001 · Cited by 48
“Situated cognition suggests that knowledge cannot be separated from context (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989), which aligns with the use of the DSP in educating graduate nursing students on the clinical, empathy, and communication skills required to conduct patient examinations.”
BackgroundPervasive learning games: Explorations of hybrid educational gamescapes
Thomas, S. D. (2006) · Simulation & Gaming · doi:10.1177/1046878105282274 · Cited by 47
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BackgroundOn Its Way to K–12 Classrooms, Web 2.0 Goes to Graduate School
Norton, P., & Hathaway, D. (2008) · Computers in the Schools · doi:10.1080/07380560802368116 · Cited by 47
“The occasions and conditions for use arise directly out of the context of activities of each community that uses the tool” (Brown et al., 1989, p. 33).”
MethodThe LINDSAY Virtual Human Project: An immersive approach to anatomy and physiology
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“According to the situated learning theory, learning is a process of encultur-ation into a community of experts (Brown et al, 1989), and the retention and application of knowledge depend upon the context in which it is acquired (Lee and Songer 2003).”
BackgroundMapping and assessing clinical handover training interventions
Slavi Stoyanov, A., Boshuizen, H. P. A., Groene, O., van der Klink, M. R., Kicken, W., Drachsler, H., & Barach, P. R. (2012) · BMJ Quality & Safety · doi:10.1136/bmjqs-2012-001169 · Cited by 47
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Digital Media and Learning as an Emerging Field, Part I: How We Got Here
Gee, J. P. (2009) · International Journal of Learning and Media · doi:10.1162/ijlm.2009.0011 · Cited by 52
“For want of a better name, we might call the family Situated Cognition Studies (see also Brown, Collins, and Duguid 1989 ; Hutchins 1995 ; Hawkins 2005 ; Lave and Wenger 1991 ).”
BackgroundLigorio, M. B., & van Veen, K. (2006) · Cited by 47
Affinity Research Groups in Practice: Apprenticing Students in Research
Villa, E., Kephart, K. L., Gates, A. Q., Thiry, H., & Hug, S. T. (2013) · Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/jee.20016 · Cited by 50
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“As a cognitive apprentice, Nanako took cues from Grace’s texts, and she became more skilful in the structural and content features of her own work (Bandura, 1977; Brown et al., 1989; Collins et al., 1987).”
BackgroundMethodConceptualising Authentic Mobile Learning
Burden, K. J., & Kearney, M. (2015) · Lecture notes in educational technology · doi:10.1007/978-981-10-0027-0_2 · Cited by 48
Rethinking Cognition, Representations, and Processes in 3D Online Social Learning Environments
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Multi-media Case Methods in Pre-service Science Education: Enabling an Apprenticeship for Praxis
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“Because teaching and learning are so situational ( Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989 ), the most useful and significant conceptual changes for teachers tend to occur in the most realistic possible contexts.”
BackgroundTrowler, P., & Turner, G. H. (2002) · Higher Education · doi:10.1023/a:1013738504981 · Cited by 48
“Meanwhile practices develop outside of the formally sanctioned ‘canonical’ guidelines ( Brown et al. 1996 ) and eventually become recurrent and taken for granted.”
BackgroundKearney, S. (2015) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2015.1028713 · Cited by 62
The constitution of agency in developing lifelong learning ability: the ‘being’ mode
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“This holistic, ‘both-and’ approach to dealing with humans’ complex, changing situations, as opposed to the dichotomous ‘either-or’ approach of ‘privileging of the mind or intellect over the body’ (Peters 2004, 14), has been developed and strengthened by theories of learning or cognition, including the theories of expe…”
BackgroundInstructional interventions to enhance collaboration in powerful learning environments
Kester, L., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2004) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2004.11.008 · Cited by 49
“PLEs situate learning in realistic contexts ( Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989 ) to facilitate transfer of acquired knowledge and skills beyond the school context.”
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Stepping Out of the Box: Rethinking the Failure of ICT to Transform Schools
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Web-based practice and feedback improve tax students’ written communication skills
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“At the core of a social process of learning is that learning should be underpinned by social interaction, collaboration and students working together (Brown et al., 1998).”
BackgroundDesigning a Curriculum for Teacher Educators
Lunenberg, M. (2002) · European Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/0261976022000044872 · Cited by 47
“As Brown et al. (1989) state, this development asks from teachers a shift in their professional role: from those who ‘deliver’ knowledge to the learners to those who coach the learning process of the learners (see also Zimmerman, 1990; Claxton, 1996).”
BackgroundInstructional design for Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning in primary and secondary school
Salvat, B. M. G. (2001) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0747-5632(01)00016-4 · Cited by 47
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“…are seen by many as empowering students to construct and build upon their own learning This allows them to make informed decisions about 'what' tools to use, 'how' to use them, 'when' to use them, and 'why' to use one rather than another (Brown et al., 1989; Gibson, 1993; Lave & Wenger, 1991).”
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Chapter 3 Reflection and communication: Cognitive considerations in school mathematics reform
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'Location is not enough!': an Empirical Study of Location-Awareness in Mobile Collaboration
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ResultDesigning Case-Based Hypermedia for Developing Understanding of Children's Mathematical Reasoning
Koehler, M. J. (2002) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci2002_2 · Cited by 47
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Instructional Design and Development of Learning Communities: An Invitation to a Dialogue.
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“Learning and cognition are culturally situated (Brown et al., 1989);the process of learning can be considered as a culturally situated praxis (Sack et al., 1994).”
InfluentialStudents’ participation in the realization of school science activities
Lundin, M. (2012) · Nordic Studies in Science Education · doi:10.5617/nordina.383 · Cited by 46
Proposing an integrated research framework for connectivism: Utilising theoretical synergies
Boitshwarelo, B. (2011) · The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning · doi:10.19173/irrodl.v12i3.881 · Cited by 51
“Knowledge is seen as inseparable from the occasions and activities of which it is a product (Brown et al., 1989).”
BackgroundSituated Learning with Online Portfolios, Classroom Websites and Facebook
Shaltry, C., Henriksen, D., Wu, M. L., & Dickson, W. P. (2013) · TechTrends · doi:10.1007/s11528-013-0658-9 · Cited by 46
“Brown, Collins and Duguid (1989) describe authentic activities as “the ordinary practices of the culture,” and communication through collaboration could certainly be considered ordinary practice for teachers.”
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Children's informal knowledge of physical angle situations
Mitchelmore, M. C. (1997) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/s0959-4752(96)00007-2 · Cited by 46
Tacit knowledge in online learning: community, identity, and social capital
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The Development of a National Curriculum in Technology for New Zealand
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“[56] observed that students in a classroom setting tend to acquire and use information in ways that are quite different from “just plain folks” (JPFs).”
BackgroundWriting in Young Deaf Children
Williams, C., & Mayer, C. (2015) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654314564882 · Cited by 51
“In addition, cognitive and social perspectives were merged when researchers took an emergent literacy stance (Teale & Sulzby, 1986, 1989) or framed their work within theories of social-constructivism (Vygotsky, 1978) or situated cognition (Brown et al., 1989).”
BackgroundTowards an integrated model for developing sustainable assessment skills
Fastré, G., van der Klink, M. R., Sluijsmans, D. M. A., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2012) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2012.674484 · Cited by 49
“The cognitive apprenticeship model originally proposed by Brown, Collins, and Duguid (1989) states that learning complex cognitive skills has to take place in authentic contexts for the learned skills to transfer outside the learning setting.”
BackgroundSemken, S. C., Freeman, C., Watts, N. B., et al. (2009) · Cited by 46
Inquiry-based instruction. Concept, essence, importance and contribution
Dostál, J. (2015) · doi:10.5507/pdf.15.24445076 · Cited by 46
Comparing How Different Inquiry-based Approaches Impact Learning Outcomes
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“This strategy is largely based on situated learning theory (J. S. Brown et al., 1989) and asks students to solve an ill-structured case similar to the types of issues that practitioners face (Dabbagh & Dass, 2013).”
Lin, V., Yeh, H., Huang, H.-H., & Chen, N. (2021) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2021.102691 · Cited by 61
Merritt, E. G., Stern, M. J., Powell, R. B., & Frensley, B. T. (2022) · Environmental Education Research · doi:10.1080/13504622.2022.2032610 · Cited by 64
Collins, A., & Kapur, M. (2022) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108888295.010 · Cited by 52
Self-citationPrinciples of Self-Organization: Learning as Participation in Autocatakinetic Systems
Barab, S. A., Cherkes-Julkowski, M., Swenson, R., et al. (1999) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1207/s15327809jls0803&4_2 · Cited by 46
Utilizing Research on Prospective Teachers' Beliefs to Inform Urban Field Experiences
Tiezzi, L. J., & Cross, B. E. (1997) · The Urban Review · doi:10.1023/a:1024634623688 · Cited by 46
“In addition, research on situated learning describes an inextricable link between context and learning ( Brown, Collins, and Duguid, 1989 ).”
BackgroundCreating authentic learning environments through blended learning approaches
Oliver, R., Herrington, J., & Reeves, T. C. (2006) · Murdoch University Research Portal · Cited by 46
McElvany, N., & Artelt, C. (2008) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2008.02.002 · Cited by 46
Stokingham Sixth Form College: Institutional culture and dispositions to learning
Hodkinson, P., & Bloomer, M. (2000) · British Journal of Sociology of Education · doi:10.1080/713655343 · Cited by 45
“Vygotsky’s rediscovered theorising—for example, about the zone of proximal development—has been signi cant in this trend, and the work of Brown et al. (1989) on situated cognition has been in uential.”
BackgroundSmith, E. R. (2006) · Mentoring & Tutoring Partnership in Learning · doi:10.1080/13611260601037405 · Cited by 45
“Situated in the context of conversation (Brown et al., 1989), co-planning provides an authentic context for student teachers to learn.”
BackgroundDevelopmental Process of Dialogical Critical Thinking in Groups of Pupils Aged 4 to 12 Years
Daniel, M., & Gagnon, M. (2011) · Creative Education · doi:10.4236/ce.2011.25061 · Cited by 46
The Idea of Testing: Psychometric and Sociocultural Perspectives
Moss, P., Pullin, D. C., Gee, J. P., & Haertel, E. H. (2005) · Measurement Interdisciplinary Research and Perspectives · doi:10.1207/s15366359mea0302_1 · Cited by 53
Huang, T.-T., Chen, L., & Stewart, R. A. (2010) · Knowledge Management Research & Practice · doi:10.1057/kmrp.2010.21 · Cited by 46
“…1996a; Spender, 1996), dynamic capabilities view (Helfat et al. , 2007), theoretical perspectives of cognitive learning (Barab and Plucker, 2002; Brown et al. , 1989; Collins et al. , 1991; Gibson, 1986) and knowledge creation theory (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995; Nonaka et al. , 2006), the…”
AMEE Medical Education Guide No 16: Study guides-their use and preparation
HARDEN, J. M. L. R. M. (1999) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.1080/01421599979491 · Cited by 46
Learning Cultures in Further Education
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“One very early seminal contribution to this sort of thinking was by Brown et al. (1989).”
BackgroundInfluentialLa culture en action des enseignants
Durand, M., Ria, L., & Flavier, É. (2003) · Revue des sciences de l éducation · doi:10.7202/007150ar · Cited by 69
Engaged Learning: Making Learning an Authentic Experience
Hung, D. W. L., Tan, S. C., & Koh, T. S. (2006) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/1-4020-3669-8_2 · Cited by 47
Learner profiles: Valuing individual differences within classroom communities.
Alexander, P. A., & Murphy, P. K. (2004) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10315-018 · Cited by 46
Shared virtual worlds for education: the ExploreNet experiment
Hughes, C. E., & Moshell, J. M. (1997) · Multimedia Systems · doi:10.1007/s005300050050 · Cited by 46
“In collaboration with our UCF colleague Dr. Rebecca Parsons, we are now designing a project involving situated learning (Brown et al. 1989).”
BackgroundSupporting Knowledge Awareness for a Ubiquitous CSCL
Ogata, H., & Yano, Y. (2003) · E-Learn: World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education · Cited by 46
Developing Medical Educators: A Journey, not a Destination
Steinert, Y. (2010) · doi:10.1002/9781444320282.ch28 · Cited by 46
A critical review of elaboration theory
Wilson, B., & Cole, P. (1992) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02296843 · Cited by 45
Kärki, T., Keinänen, H., Tuominen, A., Hoikkala, M., Matikainen, E., & Maijala, H. (2018) · Technology Pedagogy and Education · doi:10.1080/1475939x.2018.1430061 · Cited by 54
Developing digital creativity through authentic assessment
van Rensburg, C. J., Coetzee, S. A., & Schmulian, A. (2021) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2021.1968791 · Cited by 60
“Situated learning theorists (Collins 1988; Lave and Wenger 1991) and constructivists (Vygotsky 1978) both acknowledge that learning and constructing new knowledge and competencies should occur in authentic real-world contexts (Brown, Collins, and Duguid 1989).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P.
- Affiliations
- Institute for Research on Learning, 2550 Hanover Street, Palo Alto, California 94304.
- BBN Inc, 10 Moulton Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02238
- Venue
- Educational Researcher
- Published
- 1989-01
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 32-42
- ISSN
- 0013-189X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-102X
- OpenAlex
- W2164599981
- Cited by
- 13,645
- References
- 44
- Citations by year
- 2026: 324 · 2025: 322 · 2024: 255 · 2023: 271 · 2022: 384 · 2021: 446 · 2020: 520 · 2019: 472 · 2018: 467 · 2017: 513 · 2016: 525 · 2015: 585 · 2014: 628 · 2013: 637 · 2012: 651
- FWCI
- 128.32
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Locations
- Educational Researcher (publishedVersion)
- Illinois Digital Environment for Access to Learning and Scholarship (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Innovative Education and Learning Practices
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Educational Theory and Curriculum Studies
- Keywords
- situated cognition, learning culture, cognitive apprenticeship, situated knowledge, school culture, mathematics education, conceptual knowledge, everyday cognition, teaching practice
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-10, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-10 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
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