The DOI matches its Crossref record; 46 of the 46 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 2 of the 50 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning
Open accessAbstract
Many teaching practices implicitly assume that conceptual knowledge can be abstracted from the situations in which it is learned and used. This article argues that this assumption inevitably limits the effectiveness of such practices. Drawing on recent research into cognition as it is manifest in everyday activity, the authors argue that knowledge is situated, being in part a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it is developed and used. They discuss how this view of knowledge affects our understanding of learning, and they note that conventional schooling too often ignores the influence of school culture on what is learned in school. As an alternative to conventional practices, they propose cognitive apprenticeship (Collins, Brown, & Newman, in press), which honors the situated nature of knowledge. They examine two examples of mathematics instruction that exhibit certain key features of this approach to teaching.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
The paper argues that knowledge is fundamentally situated—partly a product of activity, context, and culture—so teaching methods that treat concepts as abstract, self-contained, and transferable are often misleading and ineffective. As an alternative, it proposes “cognitive apprenticeship,” illustrated through two mathematics teaching examples.
Key findings
- Knowledge is not independent of situations; it is a co-production of mind and world, and abstraction/explication provides an “inherently impoverished and often misleading” view of knowledge.
- Vocabulary taught from dictionary definitions is slow and unsuccessful: the average 17-year-old learns vocabulary at 5,000 words per year (13 per day) over 16 years through listening, talking, and reading, whereas classroom definition-based teaching can cover only 100 to 200 words per year and produces errors such as “I was meticulous about falling off the cliff.”
- Learning is a process of enculturation into authentic activity and culture; school activity is often “ersatz” and self-confirming, so success in school may have little bearing on performance elsewhere.
- Cognitive apprenticeship—using modeling, coaching, fading, social interaction, and collaboration—can enculturate students into authentic practices; the paper examines Schoenfeld’s magic-square problem-solving class and Lampert’s fourth-grade multiplication teaching through coin problems and student-generated stories.
Methods
- Conceptual and theoretical paper, not an empirical study; it synthesizes research on everyday cognition, apprenticeship, situated learning, indexicality, and enculturation.
- Uses illustrative cases and examples, including Miller and Gildea’s vocabulary teaching, Lave’s Weight Watchers cottage-cheese problem, Schoenfeld’s mathematics teaching, and Lampert’s multiplication teaching.
- Main analysis is argumentative: it contrasts JPF, student, and practitioner activity (Table 1) and proposes cognitive apprenticeship as an alternative to conventional didactic schooling.
Limitations
- Stated: the authors describe the exploration as “consciously speculative” and “admittedly tentative”; they say the paper does not attempt a historical survey or critical analysis, and that “major theoretical work” on situated cognition remains to be done.
- Stated: future work must frame the relationship between explicit knowledge and implicit understanding.
- Evident: the paper presents no controlled outcome data or systematic evaluation; its claims about transfer, school culture, and cognitive apprenticeship rest on conceptual argument and illustrative examples.
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Claims the paper makes
118 Own interpretation · 41 Sources not found · 4 No full text of the sources · 2 No basis given · 1 Partly supported · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“We know from an extensive literature on the subject (diSessa, 1982, 1983, 1986; McCloskey, Caramazza, & Green, 1980; White, 1983) that students have many misconceptions about qualitative phenomena in physics.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites diSessa, 1982, 1983, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Supportedcites McCloskey, Caramazza, & Green, 1980 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
McCloskey, Caramazza, and Green (1980) is cited as one work in a broader literature supporting the sentence, not as evidence for every misconception in physics. A Semantic Scholar snippet from “Overcoming University Students’ Alternative Conceptions in Newtonian Mechanics” (score 0.493) explicitly attributes undergraduate students’ mistaken predictions about curvilinear motion to McCloskey et al. (1980). The cited paper therefore supports the claim through a concrete example, although paper-scoped searches returned no full-text snippets. (LLM, conf=0.79)
- Could not verifycites White, 1983 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The supplied source, D. W. R. White’s 1983 paper “Plant Regeneration from Mesophyll Protoplasts of White Clover,” concerns plant regeneration, not physics education. Two searches within that paper returned no snippets, but the absence of accessible text prevents a definitive finding about its contents. An unscoped search found only lower-scoring discussions of physics misconceptions in other papers, not a sufficiently strong match to identify the intended White (1983) source. The citation appears mismatched, but the evidence does not meet the threshold for a misattribution verdict. (LLM, conf=0.75)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The occasions and conditions for use arise directly out of the context of activities of each community or culture that uses the tool, framed by the way members of that culture see the world.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Miller and Gildea's (1987) work on vocabulary teaching shows how the assumption that knowing and doing can be separated leads to a teaching method that ignores the way situations structure cognition.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Miller and Gildea (1987) source
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In the paper
“Miller and Gildea note that by listening, talking, and reading the average 17-year-old has learned vocabulary at a rate of 5,000 words per year (13 per day) for over 16 years.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Miller and Gildea
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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- Not matched
In the paper
“Language use would involve an unremitting confrontation with ambiguity, polysemy, nuance, metaphor, etc., were it not for the extralinguistic help that the context of an utterance provides (Nunberg, 1978).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Nunberg, 1978
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Similarly, it is common for students to acquire algorithms, routines, and decontextualized definitions that they cannot use and that therefore lie inert.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To develop this comparison between tools and knowledge, between manual tools and conceptual tools, a little further, it can be noted that learning how to use a tool involves far more than can be accounted for in any set of explicit rules.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“They are bound by intricate, socially constructed webs of belief, which make it possible to see them as cultures (Geertz, 1983), and which are essential to interpreting what they do.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Geertz, 1983
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because new situations, negotiations, and activities inevitably recast them in a new, more densely textured form, concepts continually evolve with each new occasion of use.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The authors examine one such method and argue that its lack of success is a direct result of this assumption.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 54
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In the paper
“There is barely enough classroom time, Miller and Gildea suggest, to teach more than 100 to 200 words per year.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Miller and Gildea
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Many teaching methods implicitly assume that conceptual knowledge is independent of the situations in which it is learned and used.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“By contrast, learning words from definitions and sentences abstracted from the context of normal communication, the way vocabulary has often been taught, is slow and unsuccessful.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Miller and Gildea
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Knowledge, we claim, is partially embedded in the social and physical world.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is impossible to capture the densely interwoven nature of conceptual knowledge completely in explicit, abstract accounts.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Learning is the process of constructing robust understanding out of this sort of embedded activity.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Teaching methods, however, often try to impart abstracted conceptual tools as fixed, well-defined, independent entities that can be explored in prototypical examples and textbook exercises.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“And these embedding circumstances allow people to share the burden of solving problems efficiently.”
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Knowledge is fundamentally a co-production of the mind and the world, which like woof and warp need each other to produce texture and to complete an otherwise incoherent pattern.”
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In the paper
“Teaching, however, often overlooks the central, but restrictive, contribution made by the activities, context, and culture of schools to what is learned there.”
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In the paper
“And the general strategies for intuitive reasoning, resolving issues, and negotiating meaning that people develop through everyday activity are superseded by the precise, well-defined problems, formal definitions, and symbol manipulation that characterize much school activity.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such ploys indicate how thoroughly learners really are situated, and how they always lean on the embedding context for help.”
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“So even though students are expected to behave differently, they inevitably do behave like the JPFs they are and solve most of their problems in their own situated way.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To learn to use tools as practitioners use them, students, like apprentices, must be enabled to enter that community and its culture.”
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In the paper
“Unfortunately, students are too often presented with only a part of this complex.”
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In the paper
“The issues and problems that they face arise out of, are defined by, and are resolved within the constraints of their belief system and the activity they are pursuing.”
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In the paper
“Though these are often anathema to traditional schooling, they are an essential component of social interaction and thus of learning.”
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In the paper
“Within a culture, ideas are exchanged and modified and belief systems developed and appropriated in part through conversation and narratives”
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In the paper
“Learning is instead a continual process needing above all authentic activity to support its development.”
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In the paper
“From here, students can, as we have suggested, use their fledgling conceptual knowledge to see their activity in a new light, which in turn leads to the further development of the conceptual knowledge, and so on.”
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In the paper
“When descriptions replace indexical terms (which is analogous, we hold, to classroom descriptions of activity replacing activity), the nature of discourse changes and understanding becomes much more problematic.”
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In the paper
“The social network within the culture helps them develop its language and the belief systems and promotes the process of enculturation.”
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In the paper
“They need to observe how qualified practitioners behave and talk to get a sense of how expertise is manifest in conversation and other activities.”
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In the paper
“Collaboration also leads to the articulation or manifestation of strategies, which can then be discussed and reflected on.”
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In the paper
“If, as we propose, learning is a process of enculturating that is supported in part through social interaction and the circulation of narrative”
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In the paper
“As the students gain more self-confidence and control, they move into a more autonomous phase of collaborative learning, where they begin to participate consciously in the culture.”
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In the paper
“The group, however, permits different roles to be displayed and engenders reflective narratives and discussions about the aptness of those roles.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In this sequence, apprenticeship and coaching begin by providing modeling in situ and scaffolding for students to get started in an authentic activity.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The belief system is instilled in the only way it can be, through practice in which the students actively take part.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In language learning, for example, the original frail understanding of a word is developed and extended through subsequent use and social negotiation, though each use is no less situated.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Successful execution of most individual tasks requires students to understand the many different roles needed for carrying out that task.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This further suggests that a new epistemology might hold the key to a dramatic improvement in learning and completely new insights into education.”
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In educational terms alone, however, the unheralded importance of activity and enculturation to learning suggests that much common practice is the product of an inadequate epistemology.”
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In the paper
“All knowledge is, we believe, like language. Its constituent parts index the world and so are inextricably a product of the activity and situations in which they are produced and used.”
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus all concepts--even apparently well-defined, abstract technical concepts--are always under construction. They are never wholly definable, and they defy the sort of categorical descriptions that are conventionally used in teaching: part of their meaning is always inherited from the contexts in which they are used.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The adequacy of the solution they reach becomes apparent in relation to the role it must play in allowing activity to continue.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conceptual tools similarly reflect the cumulative wisdom of the culture in which they are used and the insights and experience of individuals. Their meaning is not invariant but a product of negotiation within a culture and of practice in authentic activity.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They are not merely context sensitive; they are completely context dependent. They can only be understood in relation to specific situations, from which indexicals are, for the purposes of interpretation, inseparable.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“But words and sentences are not islands, entire unto themselves. They rely on the context in which they are used--and not just the linguistic context--to be understood.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Nunberg, 1978
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“He filled a measuring cup two-thirds full of cottage cheese, dumped it out on the cutting board, patted it into a circle, marked a cross on it, scooped away one quadrant, and served the rest.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lave (1988b)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Instead, it may be more useful to consider conceptual knowledge as in some ways similar to a set of tools.”
hedgedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Learning and acting are, as a result, interestingly indistinct, learning being a continuous, life-long process resulting from acting in situations.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Tools share several significant features with knowledge; in particular, both can be fully understood in use, and both, if fully understood, change the way their users look at the world.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Activity, concept, and culture are interdependent. No one can be totally understood without the other two. Learning must therefore involve all three.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“His class' goal, by contrast, is to understand the mathematical nature of magic squares, and it is in part by doing this that the belief system is exemplified.”
plainstates a causeSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“So knowledge, which comes coded by and connected to the activity and environment in which it is developed, is spread across its component parts--some of which are in the mind and some in the world--as the final picture on a jigsaw is spread across its component pieces.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conversely, though schooling seeks to encourage problem solving, it disregards most of the inventive heuristics that students bring to the classroom.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“by pointing to different decompositions, it stresses that heuristics are not absolute, but assessed with respect to a particular task--and that even algorithms can be assessed in this way.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“by allowing students to generate their own solution paths, it helps make them conscious, creative members of the culture of problem-solving mathematicians.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Lampert (1986) also involves her students in mathematical exploration, which she tries to make continuous with their everyday knowledge.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lampert (1986) source
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“And, in enculturating through this activity, they acquire some of the culture's tools--a shared vocabulary and the means to discuss, reflect upon, evaluate, and validate community procedures in a collaborative process.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“The students start with an extended procedure that parallels the story problem above. Eventually they find ways to shorten the process, and they usually arrive at the standard algorithm, justifying their findings with the stories they had created earlier.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lampert
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the ensuing situations, the appropriateness of the word is tested and, as with all conceptual knowledge, each application has the potential to change an individual's understanding of both the word and the world --the two are interdependent.”
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“She tries to inculcate an inseparable understanding of all of these kinds of knowledge and the connections between them, and thus to bridge the huge gap that emerges from much conventional teaching between conceptual knowledge and problem-solving activity--between, as we characterized them at the beginning, knowing and doing.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lampert
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Thus, Lampert presents the algorithm as one more useful strategy to help them resolve community problems.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lampert
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“by beginning with a task embedded in a familiar activity, it shows the students the legitimacy of their implicit knowledge and its availability as scaffolding in apparently unfamiliar tasks.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indexical terms are virtually transparent. They, like a signpost, draw little or no attention to themselves.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Eagleton (1983) describes reading as just such an enriching process, through which people continually change how they read and this, in turn, changes what they are reading.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Eagleton (1983)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“By deliberately engaging students in authentic mathematical practice, he reaches well beyond the inculcation of problem-solving skills. His method, much more importantly, provides students with the opportunity to enter the culture of mathematical practice, which enables them to use those skills as practitioners.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Schoenfeld
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boostedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The class worked collectively through a number of strategies, in which, on reflection, they recognized more general and more powerful mathematical ideas.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Schoenfeld
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a causeSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“prevalent school practices still broadly assume that knowledge is individual and self-structured, that schools are neutral with respect to what is learned in them, that concepts are abstract and immutable and independent of the activity in which they are acquired and used, and that JPF behavior is something to be discouraged.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Schoenfeld is careful to emphasize that all these strategies are illustrated in action, developed by the class, not declared by the teacher.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Schoenfeld
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Lave (1988c) describes how some students feel it necessary to disguise effective strategies so that teachers believe the problems have been solved in the school-approved way.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lave (1988c)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the terms of cognitive apprenticeship, we can represent the progress of the students from embedded activity to general principles of the culture as presented in Figure 3.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“The class went on to explore other possible magic squares and thereby discovered general principles (e.g., an algebraic form for describing them).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Schoenfeld
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a causeSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As an indication that he is working in the culture of mathematics, not in the culture of schooling, he does not stop at what, in culture of school practice, marks the end: an answer.”
hedgedstates an associationSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Schoenfeld's teaching of problem solving (1985, in press) attempts to show college students how to think mathematically about the world, how to see the world through mathematicians' eyes, and thus how to use the mathematician's tools.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Schoenfeld (1985, in press) source
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Recurring features of the environment seem to afford recurrent sequences of actions.”
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This sort of dialectical process is common to all activity, and it similarly undermines any assumption that once conceptual knowledge has been described and applied in exercises, the task of teaching or learning has been finished.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Schoenfeld's approach, on the other hand, points in particular to the way in which students can be exposed to the authentic ways of thinking of a culture and its conceptual viewpoint, as much as to its subject matter.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A proposition, as we pointed out above, can only be correctly interpreted in the context of the situation in which it is used.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“And apprenticeship also suggests the paradigm of situated modeling, coaching, and fading (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989), whereby teachers or coaches promote learning first by modeling their strategies for students in authentic activity. Then teachers and colleagues support a student's attempts at doing the task. And finally they empower the student to coatinue independent of the teacher.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An epistemology that begins with activity and perception, which are first and foremost embedded in the world, may simply bypass the classical problem of reference--of mediating conceptual representations.”
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is at this stage, in short, that students no longer behave as archetypal students but participate in the activity of practitioners and develop their conceptual understanding through social interaction and collaboration in the culture of the domain, not of the school.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Lave (1988a) and Lave and Wenger (in preparation) point out the importance for apprentices of learning their craft in the appropriate community of practice, towards the center of which they continuously progress through gradual enculturation.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lave (1988a)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Lave and Wenger (in preparation)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This in turn fosters generalizing, grounded in the students' situated understanding.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These then occupy a place in our ontology and become something more to learn about rather than simply something useful in learning.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“groups of practitioners are particularly important, for it is only within groups that social interaction and conversation can take place.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, indexical representations seem to gain their efficiency by leaving a great deal of the context underrepresented or implicit.”
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper relies on this without support.
Most school activity exists in a culture of its own.
“The idea that most school activity exists in a culture of its own helps explain many of the difficulties of cultivating robust domain learning in school.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Schools demand a qualitative change in behavior.
“Schools do seem to demand a qualitative change in behavior, however.”
The paper relies on this without support.
What a student is expected to do and what a JPF does are significantly different.
“What the student is expected to do and what a JPF does are significantly different.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The school situation is extremely specialized.
“But the school situation is extremely specialized.”
The paper relies on this without support.
An unacknowledged dependency on school-based cues makes learning extremely fragile when viewed from outside school.
“Viewed from outside, where problems do not come in text books, an unacknowledged dependency on such school-based cues makes the learning extremely fragile.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Many professions with generally acknowledged cognitive content (e.g., law, medicine, architecture, business) have traditionally been learned through apprenticeship.
“Certainly many professions with generally acknowledged cognitive content--for example, law, medicine, architecture, business, etc.--have nonetheless traditionally been learned through apprenticeship.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Advanced graduate students in humanities, social sciences, and physical sciences acquire extremely refined research skills through apprenticeship with senior researchers.
“Moreover, advanced graduate students in the humanities, the social sciences, and the physical sciences, acquire their extremely refined research skills through the apprenticeship they serve with senior researchers.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Advanced graduate students, like all apprentices, must recognize and resolve ill-defined problems that issue out of authentic activity, in contrast to well-defined exercises typically given in textbooks and exams throughout earlier schooling.
“Then they, like all apprentices, must recognize and resolve the ill-defined problems that issue out of authentic activity, in contrast to the welldefined exercises that are typically given to them in text books and on exams throughout their earlier schooling.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Students who are taught individually rather than collaboratively can fail to develop skills needed for collaborative work.
“Students who are taught individually rather than collaboratively can fail to develop skills needed for collaborative work.”
The paper relies on this without support.
For centuries epistemologists have concentrated primarily on conceptual representation and its problematic relation to objects in the world, assuming that representation is cognitively prior to all else.
“For centuries epistemologists have concentrated primarily on conceptual representation and its problematic relation to objects in the world, assuming that representation is cognitively prior to all else.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Teachers rarely have the opportunity to hear enough of what students think to recognize when the information offered back by students is only a surface retelling for school purposes that may mask deep misconceptions about the physical world and problem-solving strategies.
“Teachers rarely have the opportunity to hear enough of what students think to recognize when the information that is offered back by students is only a surface retelling for school purposes (the handing back of an uncomprehended tool, as we described it at the beginning) that may mask deep misconceptions about the physical world and problem-solving strategies.”
The paper relies on this without support.
A common strategy in trying to overcome difficult pedagogic problems is to make as much as possible explicit.
“A common strategy in trying to overcome difficult pedagogic problems is to make as much as possible explicit.”
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“Constructivist, situated, and sociocultural perspectives define learning as active meaning-making, participation in communities of practice, and identity development [24,25,56].”
From A Systematic Review of Generative AI in K–12: Mapping Goals, Activities, Roles, and Outcomes via the 3P Model (2025) · cites this paper as [56]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These presentations led to discussions helping teachers create authentic contexts for learning STEM content and practices (Brown et al., 1989; Bruner, 1996; Lave & Wenger, 1991).”
From Increasing high school teachers self-efficacy for integrated STEM instruction through a collaborative community of practice (2020) · cites this paper as Brown et al., 1989
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“Brown, Collins and Duguid (1989) argue that learning and cognition are fundamentally situated and is in part a product of the activity or setting in which it is developed, emphasising that the learning experience is enhanced if the subject matter is as close to being a real world situation as possible i.e.”
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“…self-concept and achievement can be constrained by the immediate subject learning environment where learners are situated and impacted by factors associated with the environment as suggested by the social cultural perspective of learning (Brown et al., 1989; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Vygotsky, 1994).”
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A research agenda for developing and implementing educational computer games
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“…science (Roth, 2008; Roth & Lee, 2004) and it has been noted that there is a need to explore the relationship between school and professional science (Lemke, 2001) in order to provide a pedagogy that is more authentic than the “authentic” science called for by Brown, Collins, and Duguid (1989).”
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“Sociocul-tural learning processes include more than just the cognitive learning process; it considers the people, cultural tools, and the setting where an activity is situated to be important shapers of a learning experience (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989).”
BackgroundEarly History of the Fields of Practice of Training and Development and Organization Development
Torraco, R. J. (2016) · Advances in Developing Human Resources · doi:10.1177/1523422316659898 · Cited by 33
Avoiding Educational Technology Pitfalls for Inclusion and Equity
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“Designing learning experiences that only focus on rote learning creates a divide between the learner and the context (Brown et al. 1989).”
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The cultural negotiation of indigenous education: Between microethnography and model‐building
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Global measurement of the quality of education: A help to developing countries?
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Enhancing reading comprehension with text-to-speech (DECtalk) computer system
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The implementation of a national curriculum and teachers’ classroom thinking
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School Innovation in Science: Improving science teaching and learning in Australian schools
Tytler, R. (2008) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500690802199889 · Cited by 32
“The SIS can be usefully viewed through a situative perspective (Borko, 2004 ; Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989 ; Putnam & Borko, 2000 ), which characterises professional learning as involving change in participation in the cultural practice of teaching, and innovation as involving changed cultural practices.”
BackgroundMack, N. K. (2000) · The Journal of Mathematical Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0732-3123(00)00050-x · Cited by 32
Crossing the digital divide safely and trustingly: how ecologies of learning scaffold the journey
Henning, E., & van der Westhuizen, D. (2003) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2003.08.006 · Cited by 32
“…on learning mediated by electronic technologies as a prime example of the theory of distributed cognition , with authors such as John Seely Brown and Paul Duguid (Brown, 2000) being cited frequently since the now famous article in the Educational Researcher in 1989 (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989).”
BackgroundAn adaptive Student Centered Curriculum for an intelligent training system
Eliot, C., & Woolf, B. P. (1995) · User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction · doi:10.1007/bf01101802 · Cited by 32
Storytelling in jazz improvisation: Implications of a rich intermedial metaphor
Bjerstedt, S. (2014) · Lund University Publications (Lund University) · Cited by 32
Craig, S. L., Iacono, G., McInroy, L., Kirkland, A., Pascoe, R., & Kourgiantakis, T. (2022) · Clinical Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10615-022-00850-2 · Cited by 32
“Drawing from the theoretical underpinnings of constructivism (Brown et al., 1989), adult learning (Knowles, 1984) and experiential learning theory (Kolb, 1984), research has noted that a key benefit of SBL compared to didactic clinical training is the opportunity to apply their understanding of…”
MethodSoleimani, A., Herro, D., & Green, K. E. (2019) · International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1016/j.ijcci.2019.01.002 · Cited by 31
“Furthermore, psychologists and cognitive scientists propose that knowledge is essentially situated, and thus should not be separated from the context in which it is constructed and realized [19–21].”
BackgroundExploring a process view of students' knowledge about the nature of science
Hogan, K. (2000) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/(sici)1098-237x(200001)84:1 · Cited by 177
The Problem of Method and the Practice of Management Research
Miller, K. D. (2005) · Research methodology in strategy and management · doi:10.1016/s1479-8387(05)02007-2 · Cited by 31
Tobias, S. (2010) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520903433612 · Cited by 41
“…contemporary paradigm among scholars and developers concerned with instruction, came into vogue more than a decade after the publication of Wittrock’s 1974 article, advanced by the writings of Brown, Collins, and Duguid (1989); Lave and Wenger (1991); and Duffy and Jonassen (1992), among others.”
BackgroundSpoelstra, H., Stoyanov, S., Burgoyne, L., Bennett, D., Sweeney, C., Drachsler, H., Vanderperren, K., Van Huffel, S., McSweeney, J., Shorten, G., et al. (2014) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/1472-6920-14-14 · Cited by 31
Wikis for Building Content Knowledge in the Foreign Language Classroom
Pellet, S. (2012) · CALICO Journal · doi:10.11139/cj.29.2.224-248 · Cited by 31
“0 tools, Bruffee (1995) advocated “integrating technology with social relationships.”
BackgroundReconceptualisation of approaches to teaching evaluation in higher education
Tran, N. D. (2015) · Issues in educational research · Cited by 31
"The buildings speak about our city": A location based augmented reality game
Koutromanos, G., & Styliaras, G. (2015) · International Conference on Information, Intelligence, Systems and Applications · doi:10.1109/iisa.2015.7388031 · Cited by 31
When Is a Problem…? “When” Is Actually the Problem!
Mason, J. H. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-28023-3_16 · Cited by 31
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“Authentic Task should be situated in current or likely future real-world contexts rather than based on theoretical explanations Situated learning: creating meaning from authentic real-world tasks, preferably in a social setting (Brown et al. 1989; Lave and Wenger 1991) mirroring real-life challenges and allowing knowl…”
BackgroundKuang, T. M., Adler, R. W., & Pandey, R. (2021) · Issues in Accounting Education · doi:10.2308/issues-2020-097 · Cited by 35
“Based on their review, Semb and Ellis (1994) hypothesised that learning approaches actively engaging learners in an enriched contextualized learning environment, such as situated cognition (Brown et al., 1989), constructivism (Bednar et al.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialBeggrow, E. P., & Sbeglia, G. C. (2019) · Evolution Education and Outreach · doi:10.1186/s12052-018-0094-6 · Cited by 32
An exploration of agency in the localisation of open educational resources for teacher development
Wolfenden, F., & Adinolfi, L. (2019) · Learning Media and Technology · doi:10.1080/17439884.2019.1628046 · Cited by 39
“…Stuart Hall Building, Walton Hall MK7 6AA, UK audio to a different language or linguistic variety), undertaken in an attempt to ensure the materials offer authentic tasks for potential learners, thus acknowledging that both knowledge and learning are situated (Brown, Collins, and Duguid 1989).”
BackgroundThe impact of situated learning activities on technology university students' learning outcome
Chiou, H. (2020) · Education + Training · doi:10.1108/et-04-2018-0092 · Cited by 37
Deschênes, M., Goudreau, J., & Fernández, N. (2020) · Nurse Education Today · doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2020.104607 · Cited by 31
Learning by concordance (LbC) to develop professional reasoning skills: AMEE Guide No. 141
Charlin, B., Deschênes, M., & Fernández, N. (2021) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.1080/0142159x.2021.1900554 · Cited by 32
“LbC is coherent with a cognitive apprenticeship (Brown et al. 1989; Collins et al. 1991; Lyons et al. 2017), whereby learning is enhanced by panelists’ experiential and contextualized knowledge.”
BackgroundCognitive Apprenticeship in STEM Graduate Education: A Qualitative Review of the Literature
Minshew, L. M., Olsen, A. A., & McLaughlin, J. E. (2021) · AERA Open · doi:10.1177/23328584211052044 · Cited by 32
“The cognitive apprenticeship (CA; Brown et al., 1989; Collins et al., 1991) framework emphasizes the apprenticeship components of the socialization models, while also prioritizing the cognitive skills required to engage in advanced problem-solving tasks that are common in STEM.”
BackgroundMotivating youth to learn STEM through a gender inclusive digital forensic science program
Casey, E., Jocz, J. A., Peterson, K. A., Pfeif, D., & Soden, C. (2023) · Smart Learning Environments · doi:10.1186/s40561-022-00213-x · Cited by 31
“Research shows that we learn best through a combination of theory and practice in a realistic context (Brown et al., 1989).”
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Research in the Service of Co-Learning: Sustainability and Community Engagement [Abstract]
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Examining the Effects of Technology Attributes on Learning: A Contingency Perspective
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In the eye of the beholder: student perspectives on professional roles in practice
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The Application of an Adaptive Web-Based Learning Environment on Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
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“Situated learning attracted the attention of the academic world when Brown, Collins & Duguid (1989) considered the discussion on situated cognition and situated learning.”
BackgroundCare, thoughtfulness, and tact: a conceptual framework for university supervisors
Cuenca, A. (2010) · Teaching Education · doi:10.1080/10476210903505807 · Cited by 40
“As situative theorists posit, knowing and doing are reciprocal, as knowledge is situated in the physical and social contexts in which an activity takes place (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989 ; Putnam & Borko, 1997 ).”
BackgroundShaping the University Curriculum through Partnerships and Critical Conversations
Fraser, S. P. (2006) · The International Journal for Academic Development · doi:10.1080/13601440600578748 · Cited by 31
“Its strength resides in the situated nature of the learning (Brown et al., 1989) that takes place within the professional practice context (Daley, 2000).”
BackgroundGe, X., & Hardré, P. L. (2009) · Learning Environments Research · doi:10.1007/s10984-009-9064-9 · Cited by 35
Barak, M., & Asad, K. (2012) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635143.2012.656084 · Cited by 31
“Theories of situated cognition (Brown, Collins, and Duguid 1989) contend that knowledge is inseparable from the contexts and activities within which it is acquired.”
BackgroundSmith, P. J. (2001) · Journal of Vocational Education and Training · doi:10.1080/13636820100200180 · Cited by 33
“In the context of learning in the workplace, these features of self-directed learning can be developed within an authentic, real-world environment where there is access to authentic tasks and expert guidance (Brown et al, 1989).”
BackgroundInstructional design career environments: Survey of the alignment of preparation and practice
Larson, M. B. (2005) · TechTrends · doi:10.1007/bf02763727 · Cited by 31
“The survey instrument was designed to identify the current work environment and duties of practitioners, their academic preparation experiences and how that prepara- ( Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Tessmer & Richey, 1997; Winn, 1997).”
MethodPimmer, C., Pachler, N., Nierle, J., & Genewein, U. (2012) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1007/s10459-012-9350-7 · Cited by 31
“While it is acknowledged that physical activities—which also embody important cognitive skills (Brown et al. 1989)—can to some extent be learned through observation, in non-physical domains experts need to externalize their mental processes more explicitly (Collins et al.”
BackgroundHay, D. B., Tan, P. L., & Whaites, E. (2010) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602931003782525 · Cited by 31
“Subsequently, adult learning theories such as workplace learning (Billett 2001 ; Fenwick 2001 ) and situated cognition (Brown, Collins, and Duguid 1989 ) have seen higher priorities placed on adult learning contexts such as the workplace.”
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Ueda, T., Oishi, Y., Yano, Y., et al. (2006) · IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT) · doi:10.1109/icalt.2006.1652595 · Cited by 31
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The role of data reuse in the apprenticeship process
Kriesberg, A., Frank, R. D., Faniel, I. M., & Yakel, E. (2013) · Proceedings of the American Society for Information Science and Technology · doi:10.1002/meet.14505001051 · Cited by 31
“Data reuse, communities of practice, legitimate peripheral participation, cognitive apprenticeship, digital repositories, disciplinary repositories”
BackgroundLiljeström, A., Enkenberg, J., & Pöllänen, S. H. (2012) · Cultural Studies of Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11422-012-9416-0 · Cited by 31
“John Brown et al. (1989) argued that students should be exposed to the conceptual and technological tools of the domain in question.”
BackgroundSupporting Online Faculty through a Sense of Community and Collegiality
Terosky, A. L., & Heasley, C. (2014) · Online Learning · doi:10.24059/olj.v19i3.473 · Cited by 31
Gray, S., Sproule, J., & Wang, J. (2008) · European Physical Education Review · doi:10.1177/1356336x08090705 · Cited by 31
“From this perspective, knowledge is not a self-sufficient component, independent of the context in which it is learned and used (Brown et al., 1989); it is inseparable, not only from context, but also from culture.”
BackgroundA Learning Sciences Perspective on Teacher Learning Research
Fishman, B., Davis, E. A., & Chan, C. K. K. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139519526.042 · Cited by 32
A Vertically Integrated Online Radiology Curriculum Developed as a Cognitive Apprenticeship:
Lim‐Dunham, J. E., Ensminger, D. C., McNulty, J. A., Hoyt, A. E., & Chandrasekhar, A. J. (2015) · Academic Radiology · doi:10.1016/j.acra.2015.09.018 · Cited by 33
Oonk, W., Goffree, F., & Verloop, N. (2005) · Advances in research on teaching · doi:10.1016/s1479-3687(03)10006-5 · Cited by 31
Chapter 1: Constructivism in Mathematics Education
Noddings, N. (1990) · Journal for Research in Mathematics Education Monograph · doi:10.2307/749909 · Cited by 31
Hod, Y., & Ben‐Zvi, D. (2018) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-018-9459-z · Cited by 38
Peeples, K. N., Hirsch, S. E., Gardner, S. J., et al. (2018) · Teacher Education and Special Education The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the Council for Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/0888406418801913 · Cited by 31
“…apprenticeship model, the learner is provided not just with declarative knowledge about teaching, but strengthen procedural and conditional knowledge with situated, authentic models of effective teaching, multiple opportunities to practice, and feedback on their practice (Brown et al., 1989).”
BackgroundLifelong Learning and the Contribution of Informal Learning
Hager, P. J. (2001) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-010-0916-4_5 · Cited by 31
Moreland, J., Jones, A., & Northover, A. (2001) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1023/a:1012670514238 · Cited by 31
“This research project is based on a sociocultural view of learning where human mental processes are situated within their historical, cultural and institutional setting (Wertsch, 1991, cited in Gipps, in press), and learning is a form of cognitive apprenticeship ( Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989 ).”
MethodScaffolding learners in authentic, problem based e-learning environments: The Geography Challenge
Brickell, G., & Herrington, J. (2006) · Australasian Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.14742/ajet.1284 · Cited by 31
A Learning‐centred Faculty Certificate Programme on University Teaching
Hubball, H., & Poole, G. (2003) · The International Journal for Academic Development · doi:10.1080/1360144042000277900 · Cited by 32
“LCE has its pedagogical roots in constructivism and experiential learning theories (Kolb, 1984; Brown, Collins, and Duguid, 1989; Lave and Wenger, 1991; Gardner, 1993; Ramsden, 1994; Boud, 1993; Fosnot, 1996; Cobb and Bowers, 1999; Hansman, 2001; Jarvis, 2001).”
BackgroundHow do domains of knowledge integrate into mathematics teachers’ practice?
Escudero, I., & Sánchez, V. (2007) · The Journal of Mathematical Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jmathb.2007.11.002 · Cited by 31
Bernhardt, J. M., Runyan, C. W., Bou-Saada, I., et al. (2003) · Health Promotion Practice · doi:10.1177/1524839902250758 · Cited by 31
Cultural context in musical instrument learning
Cope, P., & Smith, H. (1997) · British Journal of Music Education · doi:10.1017/s026505170000125x · Cited by 34
“Further analysis of situated learning, particularly of trade apprenticeships (Lave, 1988), has led to the suggestion that learning would be more effective if viewed as a cognitive apprenticeship (Brown et al, 1988).”
BackgroundBackdoor creativity : collaborative creativity in technology supported teams
Sundholm, H., Artman, H., & Ramberg, R. (2004) · Cited by 31
Weller, H. G., Repman, J., Lan, W. Y., et al. (1995) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/0747-5632(95)80010-6 · Cited by 31
Developing Reflective Performers by Integrating Mental Management Skills with the Learning Process
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Educating the reflective designer
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Classrooms That Work: Teaching Generic Skills in Academic and Vocational Settings
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Design principles for a CSCL environment in teacher training
Lockhorst, D. (2000) · Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) · Cited by 31
Learner-generated designs in participatory culture: what they are and how they are shaping learning
Kim, B., Tan, L. L. W., & Bielaczyc, K. (2015) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2015.1067974 · Cited by 35
Cheche Konnen: Science and Literacy in Language Minority Classrooms.
Warren, B. M. (1989) · Cited by 31
Life writing and life-learning: an analysis of creative writing students’ work
Prescott, L. (2011) · Studies in Continuing Education · doi:10.1080/0158037x.2011.609163 · Cited by 32
“I would support the views expressed by John Seely Brown and his colleagues that cognition is always situated and cannot be separated from context (Brown, Collins, and Duguid 1989 , 32) but the distance learning environment does present an opportunity to focus on what is left in the foreground, that is, the cognitive a…”
ResultThe authenticity dilemma: towards a theory on the conditions and effects of authentic learning
Nachtigall, V., Shaffer, D. W., & Rummel, N. (2024) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-024-00892-9 · Cited by 36
“They argue that “learning from dictionaries, like any method that tries to teach abstract concepts independently of authentic situations, overlooks the way understanding is developed through continued, situated use” (Brown et al., 1989, p. 33).”
Learning Cultures of Problem-Based Learning Teams
Krishnan, S., Gabb, R. G., & Vale, C. (2011) · Australasian journal of engineering education · doi:10.1080/22054952.2011.11464057 · Cited by 32
“The interpretations of students’ learning experiences in PBL teams presented in this paper confi rm that their learning was contextually shaped and situationally determined (Biggs, 2003; Brown et al, 1989; Lave & Wenger, 1991).”
BackgroundConceptualizing Assessment Culture in School
Birenbaum, M. (2014) · The enabling power of assessment · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5902-2_18 · Cited by 31
Theory to Practice: Implementation and Initial Impact of an Online Doctoral Program.
Kumar, S., & Dawson, K. (2012) · Online journal of distance learning administration · Cited by 30
Conversational agents in virtual worlds: Bridging disciplines
Veletsianos, G., Heller, R., Overmyer, S. P., & Procter, M. (2009) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.01027.x · Cited by 30
Hämäläinen, R., & Wever, B. D. (2013) · International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning · doi:10.1007/s11412-013-9176-1 · Cited by 30
“Therefore, vocational education may benefit more from a master-apprentice approach grounded in cognitive apprenticeship theory in which students are active in an authentic learning environment (Brown et al. 1989).”
BackgroundThe Hidden Dimension of Blue-collar Sensemaking about Workplace Communication
Mills, C. (2002) · Journal of Business Communication · doi:10.1177/002194360203900301 · Cited by 30
Johnson, A. M., Butcher, K. R., Özoğul, G., & Martin Reisslein, B. (2013) · IEEE Transactions on Education · doi:10.1109/te.2013.2284258 · Cited by 31
“This experimental design was applied in the context of a computer-based instructional module that teaches novice learners, without a background in engineering, the basic principles of electrical circuits and parallel circuit analysis.”
MethodRuff, S., & Carter, M. (2009) · IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie.2009.5350442 · Cited by 31
“In other words, students would learn by participating as professionals as they prepare to become effective members of a community of engineers [21-24].”
BackgroundExploring the impact of a professional practice education doctorate in educational environments
Kumar, S., & Dawson, K. (2012) · Studies in Continuing Education · doi:10.1080/0158037x.2012.736380 · Cited by 30
Collaborative Mobile Learning in Situ from Knowledge Building Perspectives
So, H., Tan, E., & Tay, J. (2012) · NIE Digital Repository (National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University) · Cited by 30
Exploring Students’ Perceptions about Learning in School: An Activity Theory Based Study
Portnov-Neeman, Y., & Barak, M. (2013) · Journal of Education and Learning · doi:10.5539/jel.v2n3p9 · Cited by 35
The “state of art” of organisational blogging
Baxter, G. J., & Connolly, T. M. (2013) · The Learning Organization · doi:10.1108/09696471311303755 · Cited by 30
Metadata
- Authors
- Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P.
- Affiliations
- Institute for Research on Learning, 2550 Hanover Street, Palo Alto, California 94304.
- BBN Inc, 10 Moulton Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02238
- Venue
- Educational Researcher
- Published
- 1989-01
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 32-42
- ISSN
- 0013-189X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-102X
- OpenAlex
- W2164599981
- Cited by
- 13,645
- References
- 44
- Citations by year
- 2026: 324 · 2025: 322 · 2024: 255 · 2023: 271 · 2022: 384 · 2021: 446 · 2020: 520 · 2019: 472 · 2018: 467 · 2017: 513 · 2016: 525 · 2015: 585 · 2014: 628 · 2013: 637 · 2012: 651
- FWCI
- 128.32
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Locations
- Educational Researcher (publishedVersion)
- Illinois Digital Environment for Access to Learning and Scholarship (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Innovative Education and Learning Practices
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Educational Theory and Curriculum Studies
- Keywords
- situated cognition, learning culture, cognitive apprenticeship, situated knowledge, school culture, mathematics education, conceptual knowledge, everyday cognition, teaching practice
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