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Cited by 52Extraction and Separation ProcessesGeochemistry and Elemental AnalysisGeology and Environmental Impact Studies

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Lithium

Open access
Bradley, Dwight, Stillings, Lisa L., Jaskula, Brian W., Munk, LeeAnn, McCauley, Andrew D.·2017·Professional Paper
DOI 10.3133/pp1802k
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Abstract

Lithium, the lightest of all metals, is used in air treatment, batteries, ceramics, glass, metallurgy, pharmaceuticals, and polymers.Rechargeable lithium-ion batteries are particularly important in efforts to reduce global warming because they make it possible to power cars and trucks from renewable sources of energy (for example, hydroelectric, solar, or wind) instead of by burning fossil fuels.Today, lithium is extracted from brines that are pumped from beneath arid sedimentary basins and extracted from granitic pegmatite ores.The leading producer of lithium from brine is Chile, and the leading producer of lithium from pegmatites is Australia.Other potential sources of lithium include clays, geothermal brines, oilfield brines, and zeolites.Worldwide resources of lithium are estimated to be more than 39 million metric tons, which is enough to meet projected demand to the year 2100.The United States is not a major producer at present but has significant lithium resources.

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Figures

Image 1
CC-BY-SA · From the PDF
Image 2
CC-BY-SA · From the PDF
Lithium Figure K1 Add to caption: Modified from Mohr and others (2010) Figure K1. Graph showing world lithium production from 1900 to 2007, by deposit type and year. The layers of the graph are placed one above the other, forming a cumulative total. Modified from Mohr and others (2010).
Lithium Figure K1 Add to caption: Modified from Mohr and others (2010) Figure K1. Graph showing world lithium production from 1900 to 2007, by deposit type and year. The layers of the graph are placed one above the other, forming a cumulative total. Modified from Mohr and others (2010).CC-BY-SA · From the PDF
Lithium Figure K2 Figure K2. Pie chart showing major end uses of lithium as a percentage of world consumption in 2013. Data are courtesy of David Merriman, Roskill Information Services, Ltd., written commun., May 2014.
Lithium Figure K2 Figure K2. Pie chart showing major end uses of lithium as a percentage of world consumption in 2013. Data are courtesy of David Merriman, Roskill Information Services, Ltd., written commun., May 2014.CC-BY-SA · From the PDF
Image 5
CC-BY-SA · From the PDF
Image 6
CC-BY-SA · From the PDF
Figure K3. Photographs showing some sources and uses of lithium. A, Molds of giant spodumene crystals in the Etta lithium-cesium-tantalum (LCT) pegmatite, Black Hills, South Dakota; note miner for scale. From Schaller (1916). B , Graphic granite, which is an intergrowth of quartz and feldspar that is characteristic of pegmatites. This granite is part of the Havey pegmatite in Maine. By Dwight C. Bradley. C , Elbaite, also known as watermelon tourmaline, which is a lithium-bearing gemstone. In 1973, a single gem-filled pocket in a pegmatite in Maine produced about 2 metric tons of tourmaline that would be valued today (for gems and mineral specimens) at about $40 million. This sample is from the Dunton Mine in Newry, Maine. Courtesy of the Mineralogical & Geological Museum at Harvard University (speciman number MGMH 125525. Dunton Mine, Newry, Maine. Copyright 2012. President and Fellows of Harvard College; all rights reserved). D , Salar de Atacama in Chile, where lithium brines are pumped from the shallow subsurface. By Luca Galuzzi (www.galuzzi.it)/CC-BY-SA-2.5 (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Miscanti_Lagoon_San_Pedro_de_Atacama_Chile_Luca_Galuzzi_2006.jpg).
Figure K3. Photographs showing some sources and uses of lithium. A, Molds of giant spodumene crystals in the Etta lithium-cesium-tantalum (LCT) pegmatite, Black Hills, South Dakota; note miner for scale. From Schaller (1916). B , Graphic granite, which is an intergrowth of quartz and feldspar that is characteristic of pegmatites. This granite is part of the Havey pegmatite in Maine. By Dwight C. Bradley. C , Elbaite, also known as watermelon tourmaline, which is a lithium-bearing gemstone. In 1973, a single gem-filled pocket in a pegmatite in Maine produced about 2 metric tons of tourmaline that would be valued today (for gems and mineral specimens) at about $40 million. This sample is from the Dunton Mine in Newry, Maine. Courtesy of the Mineralogical & Geological Museum at Harvard University (speciman number MGMH 125525. Dunton Mine, Newry, Maine. Copyright 2012. President and Fellows of Harvard College; all rights reserved). D , Salar de Atacama in Chile, where lithium brines are pumped from the shallow subsurface. By Luca Galuzzi (www.galuzzi.it)/CC-BY-SA-2.5 (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Miscanti_Lagoon_San_Pedro_de_Atacama_Chile_Luca_Galuzzi_2006.jpg).CC-BY-SA · From the PDF
Image 8
CC-BY-SA · From the PDF
Figure K3.-Continued E , Lithium-brine evaporating ponds at Clayton Valley, Nevada. The dark rectangular pond at the upper center of the image is 1.7 kilometers long. By Doc Searls/CC-BY-2.0 (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Chemetall_Foote_Lithium_Operation.jpg). F , Drill core through a sequence of Pliocene-age lake sediments containing lithium clay (hectorite) from Fish Lake Valley, Nev. (for location, see fig. K5, inset). Markers indicate depth in feet below the ground surface. Hectorite is present in the tan and gray layers of siltstone and claystone. By Lisa L. Stillings. G , Lithium metal is so light that it floats in oil, and so reactive that it cannot be stored in air or water. By W. Oelen/CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ALithium_element.jpg). H , View into a Tesla Model S® electric car showing the lithium-ion battery covering much of the chassis. Various battery configurations in electric vehicles use between about 10 and 22 kilograms of lithium. By Oleg Alexandrov/CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tesla_Motors_ Model_S_base.JPG).
Figure K3.-Continued E , Lithium-brine evaporating ponds at Clayton Valley, Nevada. The dark rectangular pond at the upper center of the image is 1.7 kilometers long. By Doc Searls/CC-BY-2.0 (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Chemetall_Foote_Lithium_Operation.jpg). F , Drill core through a sequence of Pliocene-age lake sediments containing lithium clay (hectorite) from Fish Lake Valley, Nev. (for location, see fig. K5, inset). Markers indicate depth in feet below the ground surface. Hectorite is present in the tan and gray layers of siltstone and claystone. By Lisa L. Stillings. G , Lithium metal is so light that it floats in oil, and so reactive that it cannot be stored in air or water. By W. Oelen/CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ALithium_element.jpg). H , View into a Tesla Model S® electric car showing the lithium-ion battery covering much of the chassis. Various battery configurations in electric vehicles use between about 10 and 22 kilograms of lithium. By Oleg Alexandrov/CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tesla_Motors_ Model_S_base.JPG).CC-BY-SA · From the PDF
Image 10
CC-BY-SA · From the PDF
Image 11
CC-BY-SA · From the PDF
Image 12
CC-BY-SA · From the PDF
Lithium Figure K4, world map of pegmatites World map showing locations of selected lithium-cesium-tantalum (LCT) pegmatites and lithium granites. The larger red squares indicate pegmatites Figure K4. containing major lithium and (or) tantalum resources. Adapted from Bradley and others (2016).
Lithium Figure K4, world map of pegmatites World map showing locations of selected lithium-cesium-tantalum (LCT) pegmatites and lithium granites. The larger red squares indicate pegmatites Figure K4. containing major lithium and (or) tantalum resources. Adapted from Bradley and others (2016).CC-BY-SA · From the PDF
Figure K5. World map showing locations of selected closed-basin lithium-brine, lithium-enriched oilfield brine, geothermal brine, lithium-clay, and lithium-zeolite deposits. The locations of the closed-basin brines are from a tabulation by Munk and others (2016). Lithium Figure K5, brine
Figure K5. World map showing locations of selected closed-basin lithium-brine, lithium-enriched oilfield brine, geothermal brine, lithium-clay, and lithium-zeolite deposits. The locations of the closed-basin brines are from a tabulation by Munk and others (2016). Lithium Figure K5, brineCC-BY-SA · From the PDF
Image 15
CC-BY-SA · From the PDF
Image 16
CC-BY-SA · From the PDF
Lithium Figure K6 Figure K6. A , Histogram of the number of lithiumcesium-tantalum (LCT) pegmatites formed per 50-million-year interval as a function of geologic time showing their episodic genesis (McCauley and Bradley, 2013, 2014). B , Histogram showing the age distribution of detrital zircon in modern sand as a function of time. Maxima are interpreted as times when supercontinents were being assembled and minima as times when they were together. LCT pegmatites are thus linked to supercontinent assembly. From Voice and others (2011). C , Histogram showing global lithium resource in pegmatites per 100-million-year interval as a function of geologic time. Note the broad correspondence between all three plots. Modified from McCauley and Bradley (2014).
Lithium Figure K6 Figure K6. A , Histogram of the number of lithiumcesium-tantalum (LCT) pegmatites formed per 50-million-year interval as a function of geologic time showing their episodic genesis (McCauley and Bradley, 2013, 2014). B , Histogram showing the age distribution of detrital zircon in modern sand as a function of time. Maxima are interpreted as times when supercontinents were being assembled and minima as times when they were together. LCT pegmatites are thus linked to supercontinent assembly. From Voice and others (2011). C , Histogram showing global lithium resource in pegmatites per 100-million-year interval as a function of geologic time. Note the broad correspondence between all three plots. Modified from McCauley and Bradley (2014).CC-BY-SA · From the PDF
Image 18
CC-BY-SA · From the PDF
Lithium Figure K8 Figure K8. Conceptual ore-deposit model for lithium brine. An extensional basin is shown, but basins in active contractional and strike-slip tectonic settings are also prospective, the requirement being that the basin is closed. From Bradley and others (2013) and Munk and others (2016).
Lithium Figure K8 Figure K8. Conceptual ore-deposit model for lithium brine. An extensional basin is shown, but basins in active contractional and strike-slip tectonic settings are also prospective, the requirement being that the basin is closed. From Bradley and others (2013) and Munk and others (2016).CC-BY-SA · From the PDF
Image 20
CC-BY-SA · From the PDF
Image 21
CC-BY-SA · From the PDF

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Citations

Cites

Research works printed but not linked: 12

  1. Aesar, 2012, Lithium oxide: Alpha Aesar safety data sheet, stock number 41832, review date August 16, 2012, 4 p., accessed July 10, 2014, at http://www.alfa.com/ content/msds/USA/41832.pdf.
  2. American Physical Society Panel on Public Affairs and the Materials Research Society, 2011, Energy critical elements- Securing materials for emerging technologies: Washington, D.C., American Physical Society, 28 p. 19 p. plus 2 appen- dixes. [Also available at http://www.aps.org/policy/reports/ popa-reports/upload/elementsreport.pdf.]
  3. Evans, R.K., 2012, An overabundance of lithium?: Lithium Supply & Markets Conference, 4th, Buenos Aires, Argen- tina, January 23-25, 2012, Presentation, unpaginated.
  4. Evans, R.K., 2014, Lithium, chap. 10 of Gunn, Gus, ed., Critical metals handbook: Hoboken, N.J., Wiley, p. 230 -260.
  5. Heier, K.S., and Billings, G.K., 1978, Lithium, in Wedepohl, K.H., ed., Handbook of geochemistry, v. 2, pt. 1: Berlin, West Germany, Springer-Verlag, p. 3-A-1 to 3-A-7.
  6. Kunasz, I.A., 2006, Lithium resources, in Kogel, J.E., Trivedi, N.C., Barker, J.M., and Krukowski, S.T., eds., Industrial minerals and rocks-Commodities, markets, and uses (7th ed.): Littleton, Colo., Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, p. 599-614.
  7. McCauley, A., and Bradley, D., 2013, The secular distribution of granitic pegmatites and rare-metal pegmatites [abs.], in PEG2013-The 6th International Symposium on Granitic Pegmatites, Attitash, N.H., 2013, Contributions: New Orleans, La., Rubellite Press, p. 92-93. [Also available at http://pegmatology.uno.edu/news_files/PEG2013_Abstract_ Volume.pdf.]
  8. Merriman, David, 2014, More motion, less e-motion-Is 2014 the year lithium regains its traction?: Sixth annual Lithium Supply & Markets Conference, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, May 20-22 2014, Presentation.
  9. Mitchell, R.L., 1964, Trace elements in soils, chap. 8 of Bear, F.E., ed., Chemistry of the soil (2d ed.): New York, N.Y., Reinhold, p. 320-368.
  10. Price, J.G., Lechler, P.J., Lear, M.B., and Giles, T.F., 2000, Possible volcanic source of lithium in brines in Clayton Valley, Nevada, in Cluer, J.K., Price, J.G., Struhsacker, E.M., Hardyman, R.F., and Morris, C.L., eds., Geology and ore deposits 2000-The Great Basin and beyond-Symposium proceedings: Reno, Nev., Geological Society of Nevada, p. 241-248.
  11. Sievers, M.L., and Canon, H.L., 1973, Disease patterns of Pima Indians of the Gila River Indian Reservation of Arizona in relation to the geo-chemical environment [abs.]: Univ. of Missouri Symposium on Trace Elements in Environmental Health, v. 7, p. 57-61.
  12. Wilkerson, G., Vredenburgh, L., Serenko, T.J., and Eyde, T.H., 2001, The Franklin Wells hectorite deposit, Inyo County, California, in Reynolds, R.E., ed., The changing face of the east Mojave Desert and Abstracts from the 2001 Desert Symposium: Fullerton, Calif., Desert Studies Consortium, California State University, p. 61-64.

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Metadata

Authors
Bradley, D., Stillings, L. L., Jaskula, B. W., Munk, L., & McCauley, A. D.
ORCID
Venue
Professional Paper
Publisher
US Geological Survey
Published
2017
ISSN
  • 1044-9612 (ISSN-L)
  • 2330-7102
DOI
10.3133/pp1802k
OpenAlex
W4214674691
Cited by
52
References
50
Citations by year
2026: 9 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 2
Type
report
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by-sa
Locations
USGS professional paper (publishedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Metals and Alloys › Extraction and Separation Processes
  • Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geochemistry and Petrology › Geochemistry and Elemental Analysis
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Geology and Environmental Impact Studies
Keywords
lithium, lithium resources, lithium recovery, lithium brines, lithium-ion batteries, electric vehicles, renewable energy, lithium demand, lithium deposits

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