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Seismic techniques and suggested instrumentation to monitor volcanoes
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TL;DR
This USGS Scientific Investigations Report chapter recommends seismic capabilities and instrumentation for monitoring volcanoes at four volcano levels, emphasizing broadband seismometers, on-scale recording, and detection/location of diverse volcanic seismicity. It provides tiered network and detection thresholds from Level 1 through Level 4.
Key findings
- Recommended network summaries: Level 1—five seismic stations within 200 km of the volcanic center, including two within 50 km; Level 2—five stations within 50 km, including two within 10 km; Level 3—seven or more broadband stations within 20 km, including at least two within 5 km; Level 4—12 to 25 broadband stations within 20 km, including at least 8 within 10 km and 4 or more within 5 km, plus at least one broadband or strong-motion station within 10 km.
- Detection and location goals: Level 1—detect >M1.5 and crudely locate >M3; Level 2—detect >M1, crudely locate >M2, and detect energetic seismic tremor; Level 3—detect >M0.5, accurately locate >M1, record and distinguish all event types, and detect tremor; Level 4—detect and accurately locate >M0, determine event type, detect and locate tremor, and provide on-scale recordings of energetic seismicity.
- Instrumentation guidance: broadband seismometers are preferred over short-period instruments; at least four seismic observations are required to locate earthquakes, with eight or more optimal; at least one station above the seismic source is critical for tracking depth; modern 24+ bit digitizers greatly increase on-scale recording range; minimum sample rate is 50 samples per second, with 100 samples per second an ideal goal; if >M4 earthquakes or large explosions are expected, at least one strong-motion sensor should be co-located with a broadband seismometer within 10 km of an expected vent.
- VLP and stress monitoring: VLP events can be detected with two broadband sensors within a few wavelengths (<5 km typically), located with at least three broadband stations within 5 km, and moment-tensor calculations typically use more than 10 stations; fault-plane solutions are poorly determined with fewer than 7 first motions and most reliable with 10 or more; spatial b-value monitoring requires event location to within 1-km accuracy.
Methods
- Design: a USGS Scientific Investigations Report chapter that synthesizes existing volcano seismology literature and prior instrumentation planning to recommend capabilities and instrumentation by volcano level 1–4.
- Data or sample: no new dataset is collected; the chapter draws on cited case studies and prior simulation work, including Thelen (2014), which simulated several thousand network configurations for Hawaiian shield volcanoes.
- Main analysis: qualitative synthesis and tiered recommendations for detecting changes in earthquake location, energy release, event type, source properties, localized stress fields, seismic source/path changes over time, and VLP/long-period events.
Limitations
- The paper states that emerging techniques and instrumentation such as distributed acoustic sensing and rotational seismometers are not considered because they still require maturation before general use in volcano monitoring.
- The paper states that localized recommendations for each unique volcanic system are beyond its scope and left to local experts; VLP moment-tensor calculation is difficult in real time because of complex volcanic topography and structure and is computationally intensive; dense station deployments within 5 km are only possible at a few volcanoes or for limited temporary deployments.
- Evident from the text: the recommendations are expert/consensus-based rather than validated by a new empirical test, and many thresholds depend on local geography, land-use restrictions, logistics, and volcano-specific conditions.
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In the paper
“Marked increases in earthquake rates have been observed at erupting volcanoes as diverse in size, chemistry, and eruptive style as Kīlauea, Hawai'i (Klein and others, 1987); Mount St. Helens, Washington (Malone and others, 1981;Moran and others, 2008a); and Mount Pinatubo, Philippines (Harlow and others, 1996).”
§ Seismic Techniques and Suggested Instrumentation to Monitor Volcanoes > Detect Changes in Earthquake Location, Seismic Energy Release, Event Type, and Source Properties
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Klein and others, 1987
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Malone and others, 1981
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- Not matchedcites Moran and others, 2008a
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plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Earthquake hypocenters have also been observed to migrate in advance of eruptions (for example, Klein and others, 1987;Harlow and others, 1996;Battaglia and others, 2005;Nakada and others, 2005).”
§ Seismic Techniques and Suggested Instrumentation to Monitor Volcanoes > Detect Changes in Earthquake Location, Seismic Energy Release, Event Type, and Source Properties
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Klein and others, 1987
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Harlow and others, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Battaglia and others, 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“At Kīlauea, changes in velocity were strongly correlated to changes in tilt, an exciting development at volcanoes without tiltmeters installed (Donaldson and others, 2017).”
§ Seismic Techniques and Suggested Instrumentation to Monitor Volcanoes > Monitor Changes in Seismic Source and (or) Path Over Time
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Donaldson and others, 2017
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boostedstates an associationSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Velocity changes were found in association with activity at Mount St. Helens (Hotovec-Ellis andothers, 2014, 2015) and Kīlauea (Hotovec-Ellis and others, 2022).”
§ Seismic Techniques and Suggested Instrumentation to Monitor Volcanoes > Monitor Changes in Seismic Source and (or) Path Over Time
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hotovec-Ellis and others, 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Hotovec-Ellis and others, 2015
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Hotovec-Ellis and others, 2022
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
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In the paper
“Depending on the volcano, precursory seismic sequences may be entirely composed of smaller magnitude (M <2) earthquakes; for example, at Mount Spurr, Alaska, in 1992 (Power and others, 1995).”
§ Seismic Techniques and Suggested Instrumentation to Monitor Volcanoes > Detect Changes in Earthquake Location, Seismic Energy Release, Event Type, and Source Properties
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Power and others, 1995
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
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Findayani, A., Setyowati, D. L., & Nugraha, S. B. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-97-4547-0_191-1
Morales, S., Oliva, S. J. C., & Ávila, A. I. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-10501619/v1
Metadata
- Authors
- Thelen, W. A., Lyons, J. J., Wech, A. G., Moran, S. C., Haney, M. M., & Flinders, A. F.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Scientific Investigations Report
- Publisher
- US Geological Survey
- Published
- 2024
- ISSN
- 2328-0328 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4403122254
- Cited by
- 4
- References
- 56
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2024: 1
- Type
- report
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Scientific investigations report (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geophysics › Seismic Waves and Analysis
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geophysics › Geophysics and Sensor Technology
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geophysics › earthquake and tectonic studies
- Keywords
- volcano monitoring, seismic instrumentation, volcano seismology, volcano deformation
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-12, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-12 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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