State of Democracy in Sierra Leone Assessment 2025 Report

The law does not prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation, gender identity or expression, or sex characteristics.

“Although the application of the law in practice is limited, GSM citizens face widespread discrimination when it comes to accessing services, securing employment or expressing their rights; the law does not prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation, gender identity or expression, or sex characteristics (US Dept. of State 2023).”

• cites US Dept. of State 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The town of Yenga remains a point of territorial contestation with Guinea.

“However, the town of Yenga, a part of Sierra Leone prior to the civil war, remains a point of territorial contestation with Guinea whose forces occupied it when helping the government fight the rebels during the civil war and never left (BBC 2012).”

• cites BBC 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites ONS 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

GSM citizens face widespread discrimination when accessing services, securing employment or expressing their rights.

“Although the application of the law in practice is limited, GSM citizens face widespread discrimination when it comes to accessing services, securing employment or expressing their rights; the law does not prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation, gender identity or expression, or sex characteristics (US Dept. of State 2023).”

• cites US Dept. of State 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

In practice, citizens enjoy freedom to self-organize and form associations of diverse types.

“In practice, citizens enjoy freedom to self-organize and form associations of diverse types; many respondents to the present study were members of voluntary associations, trade unions, professional bodies and welfare organizations.”

In 2022, through the National Commission for Social Action, Sierra Leone assumed full responsibility for refugee protection.

“In 2022, through the National Commission for Social Action, Sierra Leone assumed full responsibility for refugee protection (UNHCR n.d.)”

• cites UNHCR n.d.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

There are no constitutional provisions in Sierra Leone for moderating or reconciling major societal divisions.

“There are no constitutional provisions for moderating or reconciling of major societal divisions”

• Also stated in: § How far do constitutional and political arrangements enable major societal divisions to be moderated or reconciled? · plain

  “The Constitution does not contain specific mechanisms for dealing with societal divisions”

No party has been able to secure a two-thirds majority of seats through elections since 2007.

“a share of seats which no party has been able to secure through elections since 2007”

The majority of Sierra Leoneans have little or no confidence that they will get justice through the formal courts.

“The majority of Sierra Leoneans have little or no confidence that they will get justice through the formal courts.”

There is no overt and systemic coercion and control of the media by the state or private interests.

“Whilst there is no overt and systemic coercion and control of the media by the state or private interests, the vast majority of media operations in Sierra Leone are politically owned or aligned.”

It is common for voluntary associations, citizens' groups, trade unions and social movements in Sierra Leone to be in alliance with the ruling or opposition parties.

“Sierra Leone has an extensive range of voluntary associations, citizens' groups, trade unions and social movements-but it is common for them to be in alliance with the ruling or opposition parties.”

The dynamics of government and opposition support colour perceptions of financial sustainability among journalists and media houses.

“The dynamics of government and opposition support colour perceptions of financial sustainability among journalists and media houses; political patronage and corruption within the media extends to politically-exposed individuals and groups registering media houses that serve their own agendas.”

The acceptance and application of the constitutional review proposals presented in 2017 was limited, with the government rejecting over three-quarters of the proposed ideas when issuing its white paper.

“However, the acceptance and application of those presented in 2017, for example, was limited-with the government rejecting over three-quarters of the proposed ideas when issuing its white paper (UN 2022).”

• cites UN 2022Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Sierra Leone has an extensive range of voluntary associations, citizens' groups, trade unions and social movements.

“Sierra Leone has an extensive range of voluntary associations, citizens' groups, trade unions and social movements-but it is common for them to be in alliance with the ruling or opposition parties.”

• Also stated in: § STATE OF DEMOCRACY IN SIERRA LEONE ASSESSMENT 2025 REPORT · plain

  “The landscape of Sierra Leonean civil society is vibrant, with numerous voluntary and citizen associations of different types, sizes and interests across the country.”

Despite the creation of independent bodies through which citizens can raise complaints about the actions of the police, there is limited accountability for any violent police actions undertaken.

“Despite the creation of independent bodies through which citizens can raise complaints about the actions of the police, there is limited accountability for any violent police actions undertaken and police bribery remains a notable feature of most public interactions with the force (e.g. during routine checks and at night-time checkpoints).”

Failure to comply with the provisions of the policy can lead to sanctions.

“Failure to comply with the provisions of the policy can lead to sanctions.7”

• cites [7] 7. Campaign for Good Governance (CGG) Programme Manager, authors' interview, Freetown, April 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Sierra Leone respects international obligations in respect of protections for refugees and asylum seekers.

“Sierra Leone respects international obligations in respect of protections for refugees and asylum seekers.”

Organizations that are critical of the government are regularly challenged by the state as acting as agents of political opposition.

“In an attempt to undermine their independence and credibility, organizations that are critical of the government are regularly challenged by the state as acting as agents of political opposition.”

There are compelling examples that some CSO actors are complicit in colluding with political interests.

“There are compelling examples that some CSO actors are complicit in colluding with political interests.”

Police bribery remains a notable feature of most public interactions with the force (e.g. during routine checks and at night-time checkpoints).

“Despite the creation of independent bodies through which citizens can raise complaints about the actions of the police, there is limited accountability for any violent police actions undertaken and police bribery remains a notable feature of most public interactions with the force (e.g. during routine checks and at night-time checkpoints).”

In recent years many restrictive regulations have been introduced that can be used to limit freedoms and civil liberties.

“While civil liberties are respected and protected by law-including freedom to organize and form voluntary associations, move around without restrictions, and receive and disseminate information-in recent years many restrictive regulations have been introduced that can be used to limit freedoms and civil liberties.”

Election observation mission (EOM) reports in the multiparty era have catalogued a list of electoral limitations concerning the planning and delivery of elections.

“Election observation mission (EOM) reports in the multiparty era have catalogued a list of electoral limitations concerning the planning and delivery of elections.”

• cites EU EOM 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Sierra Leone's asylum system faces ongoing challenges related to limited resources and a lack of institutional capacity.

“although its asylum system faces ongoing challenges related to limited resources and a lack of institutional capacity.”

Social movements and trade unions are likewise susceptible to co-option by political parties.

“Social movements and trade unions are likewise susceptible to co-option by political parties.”

Since the country's return to multiparty democracy, no constitutional amendment proposal has come from an opposition MP.

“However, since the country's return to multiparty democracy, no constitutional amendment proposal has come from an opposition MP.”

Institutional, and to a large extent temporary, political arrangements and structures have been devised in Sierra Leone with the purpose of dealing with societal divisions.

“rather there are temporary mechanisms and institutional structures-with varying degrees of effectiveness in achieving this.”

• Also stated in: § How far do constitutional and political arrangements enable major societal divisions to be moderated or reconciled? · plain

  “but institutional, and to a large extent temporary, political arrangements and structures have been devised with this purpose.”

As revealed in social surveys, people feel that there is often unequal treatment of persons on account of social standing, influence, political persuasion and money.

“As revealed in social surveys, people feel that there is often unequal treatment of persons on account of social standing, influence, political persuasion and money.”

Sierra Leone's immigration policy is largely free from arbitrary discrimination.

“Sierra Leone's immigration policy is largely free from arbitrary discrimination.”

Political patronage and corruption within the media extends to politically-exposed individuals and groups registering media houses that serve their own agendas.

“The dynamics of government and opposition support colour perceptions of financial sustainability among journalists and media houses; political patronage and corruption within the media extends to politically-exposed individuals and groups registering media houses that serve their own agendas.”

Confidence in the courts and penal system to deliver fair and effective justice is low.

“Generally, confidence in the courts and penal system to deliver fair and effective justice is low.”

The country climbed eight places in the 2025 World Press Freedom Index to 56th out of 180 countries.

“The country climbed eight places in the 2025 World Press Freedom Index to 56th out of 180 countries (RSF 2025).”

• cites RSF 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Prominent voices online are subject to attacks from politically aligned bloggers.

“Prominent voices online are subject to attacks from politically aligned bloggers.”

Generally, private citizens are not subject to intrusion and harassment by the media.

“Generally, private citizens are not subject to intrusion and harassment by the media.”

• Also stated in: § 5.3. THE MEDIA IN A DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY Overview · plain

  “Apart from occasional instances of misconduct by individual media practitioners, private citizens are generally not subjected to intrusion and harassment by the media.”

Hate speech, propaganda and misinformation on social media is a worrying trend in Sierra Leone.

“Hate speech, propaganda and misinformation on social media is a worrying trend in Sierra Leone, according to submissions from the communities engaged.”

• cites Manika Kamara 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Lecturer 1 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Programme Manager, CGG 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The media in Sierra Leone is somewhat independent from government.

“The media in Sierra Leone is somewhat independent from government, but many outlets are owned by politically aligned or involved individuals who influence the direction of coverage.”

Social media is a major contributor to the unease, unrest and political anxiety that the country has faced since 2018.

“Social media is, however, a major contributor to the unease, unrest and political anxiety that the country has faced since 2018 (IGR 2023).”

• cites IGR 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

A 2022 BBC Media Action Report found that 69 per cent of people in the country listen to radio at least once a week.

“A 2022 BBC Media Action Report found that 69 per cent of people in the country listen to radio at least once a week-the most accessible form of media.”

• cites BBC 2022Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

There is no systematic effort by the state to stifle the independence of the media.

“There is no systematic effort by the state to stifle the independence of the media; the legislative independence of the Independent Media Commission (IMC) has been strengthened by the passage of a new IMC Act in 2020 and accompanying regulations in 2022.”

Citizens' participation in voluntary associations, mutual benefit/peer-support groups and other voluntary public activities is very extensive in the country.

“Citizens' participation in voluntary associations, mutual benefit/ peer-support groups and other voluntary public activities is very extensive in the country.”

• Also stated in: § At the meeting to validate the SoD report, organizations like the Sierra Leone Bar Association, the National Union of Sierra Leone · boosted

  “Across the different demographics engaged, respondents in all communities demonstrated that membership of voluntary associations is very popular.”

There have been several instances of journalists being detained and investigated under the Cyber Security and Crimes Act.

“There have been several instances of journalists being detained and investigated under the Cyber Security and Crimes Act (MFWA 2025; EUSEE 2025) although on the whole, expert informants reported that harassment of media houses or professionals by the state or organized groups was uncommon (Manika Kamara 2025; Lecturer 1 2025; Programme Manager, CGG 2025).”

• cites MFWA 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites EUSEE 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

In the Sierra Leone Bar Association's (SLBA) elections in 2024, two competing camps emerged headed by candidates openly backed by political parties.

“In the Sierra Leone Bar Association's (SLBA) elections in 2024, two competing camps emerged headed by candidates openly backed by political parties.”

A particular challenge facing the IMC is its ability to effectively determine the beneficial ownership of media entities registered with it.

“However, a particular challenge facing the IMC is its ability to effectively determine the beneficial ownership of media entities registered with it.”

Based on the FGD conversations, print and broadcast media consumption was more common among residents of Freetown.

“Based on the FGD conversations, print and broadcast media consumption was more common among residents of Freetown.”

Nearly every person belonged to one or two voluntary associations.

“Nearly every person belonged to one or two voluntary associations.”

In Sierra Leone, the right of political parties to exist and operate is guaranteed.

“In Sierra Leone, the right of political parties to exist and operate is guaranteed-but smaller entities are inhibited by financial challenges and an electoral system which places a high threshold for legislative participation.”

Beyond occasional clashes between individual media practitioners and powerful interests, there is no systematic attempt by the state to muzzle the media in Sierra Leone.

“Beyond occasional clashes between individual media practitioners and powerful interests, there is no systematic attempt by the state to muzzle the media in Sierra Leone.”

Notwithstanding the occasional investigation, the media is hampered by the general political culture in the country in which politicians, public officials and other powerful actors see journalists and media institutions as tools to be used to promote their private interests.

“Notwithstanding the occasional investigation, the media is hampered by the general political culture in the country in which politicians, public officials and other powerful actors see journalists and media institutions as tools to be used to promote their private interests (Manika Kamara 2025).”

• cites Manika Kamara 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The credibility of the electoral process and results have nonetheless been challenged in court by the losing party at all the general elections held since the country's return to multiparty politics.

“The credibility of the electoral process and results have nonetheless been challenged in court by the losing party at all the general elections held since the country's return to multiparty politics.”

The only exception was in 2023 when the APC, mistrustful of the judiciary to provide a fair hearing, chose to boycott legislative institutions at the national and district level.

“The only exception was in 2023 when the APC, mistrustful of the judiciary to provide a fair hearing, chose to boycott legislative institutions at the national and district level (Harding 2023).”

• cites Harding 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Voter registration and voting procedures can pose difficulties for many people because of illiteracy, poverty, poor transportation networks, and ECSL logistical challenges.

“However, these procedures can nevertheless pose difficulties for many people on account of illiteracy, poverty, poor transportation networks and, on the part of the ECSL, logistical challenges.”

Only the two dominant political parties have been able to sustain large membership bases over the years.

“Only the two dominant political parties have been able to sustain large membership bases over the years; party strongmen largely dictate policy and determine candidate selection (see : Jabbie 2024).”

• cites Jabbie 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Many such parties arose as the result of conflicts over elections of the leadership of the APC and SLPP-for example the People's Movement for Democratic Change (PMDC), Coalition for Change, and National Grand Coalition (NGC).

“Many such parties arose as the result of conflicts over elections of the leadership of the APC and SLPP-for example the People's Movement for Democratic Change (PMDC), Coalition for Change, and National Grand Coalition (NGC).”

In youth FGDs, attempts to rig primaries and resultant violence during these contests were widely cited as indicating a lack of internal party democracy.

“In youth FGDs, attempts to rig primaries and resultant violence during these contests were widely cited as indicating a lack of internal party democracy.”

They are the only two parties represented in parliament following the 2023 election.

“They are the only two parties represented in parliament following the 2023 election.9”

• cites [9] 9. -, Final Report General Elections in Sierra Leone, 24 June 2023b,Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Those at the apex of the dominant parties seek to control the trajectory of the party.

“Those at the apex of the dominant parties seek to control the trajectory of the party.”

As a result of these dynamics and choices, the two main parties (besides others) have internal democracy challenges that are decades-old.

“As a result of these dynamics and choices, the two main parties (besides others) have internal democracy challenges that are decades-old.”

Expert informants noted that a key challenge with political parties since the return to multi-party politics is their over-reliance on their founding leaders or other prominent figures.

“Expert informants noted that a key challenge with political parties since the return to multi-party politics is their over-reliance on their founding leaders or other prominent figures (Fuad Kanu 2025; Lecturer 1 2025).”

• cites Fuad Kanu 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Lecturer 1 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Sierra Leone's de facto two-party democracy has been effective in sustaining governments in office.

“Sierra Leone's de facto two-party democracy has been effective in sustaining governments in office; and the two dominant parties have taken turns to form government upon winning elections.”

At least a dozen parties have appeared and disappeared in the last two decades as their founders either retired, died or crossed over/back to the APC or SLPP.

“At least a dozen parties have appeared and disappeared in the last two decades as their founders either retired, died or crossed over/back to the APC or SLPP.”

In June 2024 a young female lawyer, Joy Baryoh, was arrested and detained under the Cyber Security And Crime Act 2021 on charges of cyber stalking and bullying-for questioning the legitimacy of President Bio and the recently elected head of the Sierra Leone Bar Association in a social media post.

“In June 2024 a young female lawyer, Joy Baryoh, was arrested and detained under the Cyber Security And Crime Act 2021 on charges of cyber stalking and bullying-for questioning the legitimacy of President Bio and the recently elected head of the Sierra Leone Bar Association in a social media post.”

• cites MFWA 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Afrobarometer survey data from 2025 find that 78 per cent of Sierra Leonean citizens see democracy as their preferred form of government.

“Afrobarometer survey data from 2025 further finds that 78 per cent of citizens see democracy as their preferred form of government (Afrobarometer 2025a)”

• cites Afrobarometer 2025aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The two dominant parties have taken turns to form government upon winning elections.

“Sierra Leone's de facto two-party democracy has been effective in sustaining governments in office; and the two dominant parties have taken turns to form government upon winning elections.”

Regulations regarding political party financing to forestall the dominance of special interests are generally flouted.

“Regulations regarding political party financing to forestall the dominance of special interests are generally flouted.”

• Also stated in: § 32 STATE OF DEMOCRACY IN SIERRA LEONE ASSESSMENT 2025 REPORT · boosted

  “There was agreement among expert informants that Political Parties Act provisions are consistently flouted and that the financing of political parties and campaigns remains largely unregulated (Carter Center 2023b: 34).”

• cites Carter Center 2023b: 34Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Following the shift to a proportional representation district bloc electoral system ahead of the 2023 elections, candidates' positions on lists are submitted to the electoral authorities by a select number of key party officials, accentuating this lack of transparency.

“Following the shift to a proportional representation district bloc electoral system ahead of the 2023 elections, candidates' positions on lists are submitted to the electoral authorities by a select number of key party officials, accentuating this lack of transparency (Jabbie 2024).”

• cites Jabbie 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

On public financial management, rather than parliament scrutinizing the executive, the executive or the leadership of political parties is more likely to put pressure on MPs from all parties, through co-option or coercion, to reduce and limit scrutiny.

“When it comes to things like public financial management, rather than parliament scrutinizing the executive, it is more likely that the latter (or the leadership of political parties) will put pressure on MPs from all parties-either through co-option or even coercion-to reduce and limit scrutiny.”

During elections, political parties in Sierra Leone rarely seek votes by outlining clear policy choices for the populace.

“During elections, political parties in Sierra Leone rarely seek votes by outlining clear policy choices for the populace.”

Significant concerns were raised by domestic and international observers about the credibility of the results announced by ECSL in 2023.

“Significant concerns were raised by domestic and international observers about the credibility of the results announced by ECSL in 2023 (see: EU EOM 2023; Carter Center 2023b).”

• cites EU EOM 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Carter Center 2023bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Political parties often mobilize to support registration processes for their supporters.

“Political parties often mobilize to support registration processes for their supporters.”

Concerns about the credibility of the 2023 election results were shared by domestic and international observers who contended that opacity in the counting and tabulation of the results had created statistical inconsistencies in the results announced.

“Concerns about the credibility of the election results presented in 2023 were shared by domestic and international observers who contended that opacity in the counting and tabulation of the results had created statistical inconsistencies in the results announced (EU EOM 2023; Carter Center 2023b).”

• cites EU EOM 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Carter Center 2023bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The executive has significant control over parliament.

“The executive has significant control over parliament, and the freedom of expression of all members can be stifled.”

Access to means of communication with voters is not fair in practice.

“The procedures for registration of candidates and parties are fair in law and practice, while access to means of communication with voters is not fair in practice.”

The high threshold for winning a seat (11.9 per cent in any district) wiped out smaller parties such as the NGC and Coalition for Change, which in the 2018-2023 legislature had held eight and four seats respectively.

“Whilst the district block PR system introduced for the 2023 election created a parliament broadly reflective of the vote share and as between the SLPP and the APC, the high threshold for winning a seat (11.9 per cent in any district-see 5.4 above) wiped out smaller parties such as the NGC and Coalition for Change which in the 2018-2023 legislature had held eight and four seats, respectively.”

Evidence obtained for the SoD report from engagement with communities confirms high enthusiasm among citizens to vote at elections.

“Evidence obtained for the SoD report from engagement with communities confirms high enthusiasm among citizens to vote at elections.”

At the five general elections held since 2002, voter turnout has consistently averaged over 80 per cent.

“At the five general elections held since the first post-war elections in 2002, voter turnout has consistently averaged over 80 per cent.”

Following the introduction of the GEWE Act in 2022, the 2023 elections saw women win 30.4 per cent of directly elected seats in the legislature.

“Previously older men dominated the seats in parliament, but following the introducing of the GEWE Act in 2022, the 2023 elections saw women win 30.4 per cent of directly elected seats in the legislature.”

Expert informants agree that the prospect of expulsion can lead to control of parliamentarians' ability to initiate, scrutinize and amend legislation.

“Expert informants agree that this prospect can lead to control of parliamentarians' ability to initiate, scrutinize and amend legislation.”

Expert informants agreed that both the APC and SLPP enjoy what amount to fixed ethno-regional strongholds.

“Expert informants agreed that both the APC and SLPP enjoy what amount to fixed ethno-regional strongholds (Fuad Kanu 2025; Lecturer 1 2025).”

• cites Fuad Kanu 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Lecturer 1 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Voters are left to choose between the two dominant parties mostly on the basis of ethnic and regional affinities, family ties or the pursuit of rewards.

“At election time political parties rarely offer competing policy or ideological commitments and voters are instead left to choose between the two dominant parties mostly on the basis of ethnic and regional affinities, family ties or the pursuit of rewards.”

The freedom of expression of all members of parliament can be stifled.

“The executive has significant control over parliament, and the freedom of expression of all members can be stifled.”

The composition of Parliament somewhat reflects the social composition of the electorate.

“The composition of Parliament somewhat reflects the social composition of the electorate.”

In 2023, the APC, mistrustful of the courts' ability to deliver an impartial verdict, chose to pursue a boycott of representative institutions to register its concerns about the lack of disaggregated election data produced by ECSL and a general lack of openness during vote tabulation.

“In 2023 however, the APC, mistrustful of the courts' ability to deliver an impartial verdict, chose to pursue a boycott of representative institutions to register its concerns about the lack of disaggregated election data produced by ECSL and a general lack of openness during vote tabulation.”

At election time political parties rarely offer competing policy or ideological commitments.

“At election time political parties rarely offer competing policy or ideological commitments and voters are instead left to choose between the two dominant parties mostly on the basis of ethnic and regional affinities, family ties or the pursuit of rewards.”

The laws do not have any caveats that favour or disfavour different parties and candidates regarding party and candidates' registration procedures.

“The laws do not have any caveats that favour or disfavour different parties and candidates regarding party and candidates' registration procedures (Fuad Kanu 2025; Lecturer 1 2025).”

• cites Fuad Kanu 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Lecturer 1 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

FGDs in Bombali, Kailahun and Kenema reported that it was common to see campaign materials of only one party in some communities.

“FGDs in Bombali, Kailahun and Kenema reported that it was common to see the campaign materials of only one party in some communities.”

Since 2002, no election in Sierra Leone has been accepted without the losing party challenging the credibility of the electoral process or the results.

“Since 2002, no election in the country has been accepted without the losing party challenging the credibility of the electoral process or the results.”

2023 notwithstanding, these largely peaceful challenges have been channelled, unsuccessfully, through petitions to the courts rather than through mobilizing supporters to protest.

“2023 notwithstanding, these largely peaceful challenges have been channelled, unsuccessfully, through petitions to the courts rather than through mobilizing supporters to protest.”

FGDs echoed that Parliament is not seen stopping the President from getting his ways, a common refrain.

“This was echoed also in FGDs-'We are yet to see Parliament stopping the President from getting his ways' being a common refrain.”

Neither the Constitution nor any primary legislation explicitly stipulates parliamentary procedures for consulting the public and relevant interests.

“Neither the Constitution nor any primary legislation explicitly stipulates parliamentary procedures of this kind.”

In a 2025 Afrobarometer survey, 50 per cent of Sierra Leoneans said parliament was corrupt.

“In a 2025 Afrobarometer survey, 50 per cent of Sierra Leoneans said parliament was corrupt (Afrobarometer 2025b).”

• cites Afrobarometer 2025bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

A second and related reason for the ineffectiveness of parliament in Sierra Leone is the poor attendance of MPs at sittings.

“A second and related reason for the ineffectiveness of parliament in Sierra Leone is the poor attendance of MPs at sittings.”

Parliament's effectiveness to serve as a forum for deliberation on issues of public concern is compromised at two levels.

“However, Parliament's effectiveness to serve as a forum for deliberation on issues of public concern is compromised at two levels.”

The approval of nearly all appointments presented to Parliament's appointments committee was another example of the limited scrutiny offered to the executive.

“The approval of nearly all appointments presented to its appointments committee was another example of the limited scrutiny offered to the executive.”

MPs have no regular practice of visiting their constituencies, now districts, to hold consultations and share information.

“MPs have no regular practice of visiting their constituencies, now districts, to hold consultations and share information.”

In January 2025 the Speaker suspended a member of the Parliamentary Press Gallery from accessing Parliament.

“However, in January 2025 the Speaker suspended a member of the Parliamentary Press Gallery from accessing Parliament.”

The effectiveness of Parliament to serve as a forum for deliberation and debate on issues of public concern is mixed.

“The effectiveness of Parliament to serve as a forum for deliberation and debate on issues of public concern is mixed.”

Constituents generally have low access to their elected members.

“Constituents generally have low access to their elected members.”

The December 2024 vote to sack the Auditor General, a motion put forward by the government after an extensive and politically compromised investigation, came up in discussions as an example of parliament being used to validate, rather than challenge, the executive's agenda.

“The December 2024 vote to sack the Auditor General, a motion put forward by the government after an extensive and politically compromised investigation (Africa Confidential 2024), came up in discussions as an example of parliament being used to validate, rather than challenge, the executive's agenda.”

• cites Africa Confidential 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The reasons why MPs are hesitant to visit constituencies have largely to do with the personal demands for financial help that individuals place on them.

“The reasons why MPs are hesitant to do this have largely to do with the personal demands for financial help that individuals place on them, as two MPs confirmed (Jenho 2025; Rado Yokie 2025; see also Jabbie 2024).”

• cites Jenho 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Rado Yokie 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Jabbie 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Respondents were unanimous in their view that parliament was incapable of holding the executive to account.

“However, respondents were unanimous in their view that parliament was incapable of holding the executive to account.”

The extent to which the GEWE Act's employment provisions are applied and effectively enforced remains unclear.

“The extent to which these provisions are applied and effectively enforced remains unclear.”

The procedures of Parliament for consulting with the public and relevant interests across the range of its work are very limited.

“The procedures of Parliament for consulting with the public and relevant interests across the range of its work are very limited.”

Sierra Leone's economy is highly informal, with petty trading, artisanal mining, peasant agriculture and unskilled labour services accounting for the livelihood of 86 per cent of the workforce.

“Sierra Leone's economy is highly informal, with petty trading, artisanal mining, peasant agriculture and unskilled labour services accounting for the livelihood of 86 per cent of the workforce ((UNCDF 2021).”

• cites UNCDF 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

There are no laws that seek to restrict the freedom of political parties and groups to organize within Parliament and contribute to its work.

“There are no laws that seek to restrict the freedom of political parties and groups to organize within Parliament and contribute to its work.”

For the vast majority of people who fend for themselves through informal activities, the issue of employment discrimination does not arise.

“For the vast majority of people who fend for themselves through informal activities, the issue of employment discrimination does not arise.”

Expert informants agreed that constituents have hardly any physical access to MPs, particularly for purposes of engagement towards aggregating their concerns for presentation in parliament.

“Expert informants agreed that constituents have hardly any physical access to MPs, particularly for purposes of engagement towards aggregating their concerns for presentation in parliament.”

The large number and variety of professional bodies and work-related associations belie the reality that limitations in the trade union laws of the country significantly affect the freedom to effectively organize and represent members' interests consistent with international best practice.

“The large number and variety of professional bodies and workrelated associations, however, belie the reality that limitations in the trade union laws of the country significantly affects the freedom to effectively organize and represent members' interests consistent with international best practice.”

In 2021, the government introduced the National Policy on Radical Inclusion in Schools, which aims to remove all barriers to education for marginalized groups, including pregnant women and persons with disabilities.

“In 2021, the government also introduced the National Policy on Radical Inclusion in Schools which aims to remove all barriers to education for marginalized groups, including pregnant women and persons with disabilities.”

In community engagements in rural areas, people reported that when they get ill the sources of care and treatment they access include clinics, traditional healers and self-medication.

“In the community engagements in rural areas, people reported that when they get ill the sources of care and treatment they access include clinics, traditional healers and self-medication.”

In FGDs with women in the Western Area, there were complaints that parents were still spending a lot of money on education for their children, with various charges being levied by school authorities.

“However, in FGDs with women in the Western Area there were complaints that parents were still spending a lot of money on education for their children, with various charges being levied by school authorities.”

Capacity-personnel numbers, skills, other resources, and their distribution-is one of the main barriers to improving healthcare outcomes in Sierra Leone.

“Capacity-personnel numbers, skills, other resources, and their distribution-is one of the main barriers to improving healthcare outcomes in Sierra Leone.”

At FGDs in remote rural areas in the North and Northeast, it was common to hear people say that they owed thanks to NGOs for services like water wells or boreholes in their communities which consecutive governments had failed to provide.

“At the FGDs in remote rural areas in the North and Northeast, it was common to hear people say that they owed thanks to NGOs for services like water wells or boreholes in their communities which consecutive governments had failed to provide.”

The vast majority of the country's population face persistent hunger.

“The vast majority of the country's population face persistent hunger.”

It was common for many in the rural areas to say that they use 'bush medicine'.

“It was common for many in the rural areas to say that they use 'bush medicine'.”

Trade unions and other work-related associations have remained a visible aspect of social and political life in Sierra Leone.

“Trade unions and other work-related associations have remained a visible aspect of social and political life in the country.”

Entrenched traditions and cultures of Sierra Leone are a source of significant health challenges.

“Entrenched traditions and cultures of Sierra Leone are also a source of significant health challenges.”

Participants in FGDs in all rural areas noted that every year during the rains, some homes are exposed to what they called 'serious hunger'.

“Participants in the FGDs in all the rural areas reflected this reality, noting that every year during the rains, some homes are exposed to what they called 'serious hunger'.”

Recent progress in education has been driven by government backing and resourcing, since 2019, for a Free Quality School Education programme that aims to increase primary and secondary education access and completion.

“Recent progress has been driven by government backing and resourcing, since 2019, for a Free Quality School Education programme that aims to increase primary and secondary education access and completion.”

Sierra Leone reduced the under-five mortality rate from 156 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2013 to 122 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2019.

“As a result, Sierra Leone was able to reduce the under-five mortality rate from 156 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2013 to 122 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2019 (Government of Sierra Leone 2022).”

• cites Government of Sierra Leone 2022Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Protection of the health of the population remains very poor.

“Protection of the health of the population remains very poor.”

In the sampled communities engaged in FGDs, there was consensus that the absence of basic necessities was felt on a daily basis.

“In the sampled communities engaged in FGDs, there was consensus that the absence of basic necessities was felt on a daily basis.”

In community engagements in the capital city and its environs, many people were members of unions for drivers, motorbike taxi riders, photographers, petty traders, bakers and welders.

“For instance, in the community engagements in the capital city and its environs, many people were members of unions for drivers, motorbike taxi riders, photographers, petty traders, bakers and welders.”

Two-thirds of adults have no, or incomplete, primary education.

“Twothirds of adults have no, or incomplete, primary education.”

In Sierra Leone, women and girls experience a lifecycle of gender-based violence (GBV).

“In Sierra Leone, women and girls experience a lifecycle of gender-based violence (GBV).”

Freedom from harassment and intimidation of individuals and groups working to improve human rights in Sierra Leone is somewhat respected.

“Freedom from harassment and intimidation of individuals and groups working to improve human rights is somewhat respected.”

The justice system in Sierra Leone remains challenged by capacity gaps and corruption concerns.

“However, it remains challenged by capacity gaps and corruption concerns.”

Equality and security of citizens' access to justice, to due process and to redress in the event of maladministration in Sierra Leone is mixed.

“Equality and security of citizens' access to justice, to due process and to redress in the event of maladministration is mixed.”

The practice of refusing requests for demonstrations stems from provisions in the Constitution that seem to contradict themselves.

“The practice of refusing such requests stems from provisions in the Constitution that seem to contradict themselves.”

Experts agreed that the suppression of protest is the most significant restriction in Sierra Leone.

“Experts agreed that the suppression of protest is the most significant restriction in the country (Ferenkeh Koroma 2025;Manika Kamara 2025;Tommy 2025).”

• cites Ferenkeh Koroma 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Manika Kamara 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Tommy 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Youth gangs are mobilized by political parties around elections to undertake violence and intimidate political opponents.

“Youth gangs are mobilized by political parties around elections to undertaken violence and intimidate political opponents (de Bruijne 2019).”

• cites de Bruijne 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Nevertheless, some HRDs in Sierra Leone still face harassment, acts of intimidation and even destruction of property when pursuing their work.

“Nevertheless, some HRDs still face harassment, acts of intimidation and even destruction of property when pursuing their work (Frontlinedefenders.org n.d.).”

• cites Frontlinedefenders.org n.d.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Section 26(2) of the Constitution has regularly been applied following the deaths of at least 20 citizens and six police officers during violent protests in August 2022.

“This latter provision has regularly been applied following the deaths of at least 20 citizens and six police officers during violent protests in August 2022 (Akinwotu and Basiru Sanusi 2022).”

• cites Akinwotu and Basiru Sanusi 2022Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Individuals and groups working to improve human rights in Sierra Leone mostly enjoy freedom from harassment and intimidation by the government.

“Individuals and groups working to improve human rights in the country mostly enjoy freedom from harassment and intimidation by the government.”

The practice of political parties co-opting or coercing the leadership of key trade unions, professional bodies, CSOs and student unions undermines freedom of association in Sierra Leone.

“However, the abovementioned practice of political parties co-opting or coercing the leadership of key trade unions, professional bodies, CSOs and student unions undermines this.”

Exposure to violence in Sierra Leone varies significantly by gender, with an estimated 62 per cent of women aged 15-49 having experienced physical or sexual violence according to 2019 survey data.

“Exposure to violence varies significantly by gender, with an estimated 62 per cent of women aged 15-49 having experienced physical or sexual violence according to 2019 survey data (UNFPA n.d.).”

• cites UNFPA n.d.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

There is no systematic pattern of physical violation of the person perpetrated by the state in Sierra Leone.

“However, there is no systematic pattern of physical violation of the person perpetuated by the state.”

The extent to which all public officials in Sierra Leone are subject to the rule of law and to transparent rules in the performance of their functions is mixed.

“The extent to which all public officials are subject to the rule of law and to transparent rules in the performance of their functions is mixed.”

Afrobarometer survey data from 2025 found that 62 per cent of respondents were unconvinced that legal cases would be resolved in a timely manner.

“It found that 62 per cent were unconvinced that legal cases would be resolved in a timely manner (long litigation periods and long pre-trial and remand detention periods which average between three and five years delay justice); and threequarters questioning whether they would be able to afford a court process in the first place (Afrobarometer 2025c).”

• cites Afrobarometer 2025cNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Changes at the apex of the judiciary in Sierra Leone are shaped by the executive in ways that do not always respect the constitutional tenure guarantee.

“Changes at the apex of the judiciary are shaped by the executive in ways that do not always respect the constitutional tenure guarantee.”

Social and political influence, in addition to resources, determine the quality of treatment one gets before the courts in Sierra Leone, including access to a court, the speed at which a matter is settled and the quality of the verdict.

“Social and political influence, in addition to resources, determine the quality of treatment one gets before the courts in Sierra Leoneincluding access to a court, the speed at which a matter is settled and the quality of the verdict.”

Formal justice and law enforcement institutions operate throughout the territory of Sierra Leone, with a few exceptions where there is no resident judge.

“Formal justice and law enforcement institutions operate throughout the territory of Sierra Leone, with a few exceptions where there is no resident judge.”

Corruption is experienced by citizens in Sierra Leone on an everyday basis.

“Corruption is experienced by citizens on an everyday basis.”

Community engagements for the SoD indicated that women are perceived to be under-represented in the army, police and security forces in Sierra Leone.

“Community engagements for the SoD indicated that women are perceived to be under-represented in the army, police and security forces.”

44 per cent of respondents in 2025 still felt that it was not likely a court case would be resolved fairly.

“However, 44 per cent of respondents still felt that it was not likely a court case would be resolved fairly (Afrobarometer 2025c).”

• cites Afrobarometer 2025cNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Corruption persists at levels that indicate that not all public officials in Sierra Leone-particularly those aligned with the ruling party-are subject to the rule of law and transparent rules in the performance of their functions.

“Corruption persists at levels that indicate that not all public officials-particularly those aligned with the ruling party-are subject to the rule of law and transparent rules in the performance of their functions.”

With the significant exception of women, the composition of the army, police and security forces in Sierra Leone largely reflects the composition of society at large in terms of offering all willing citizens the opportunity to serve.

“With the significant exception of women, the composition of the army, police and security forces largely reflects the composition of society at large in terms of offering all willing citizens the opportunity to serve.”

In November 2023 there was an attempt to take power by former members of the security forces with political sympathies to the APC.

“In November 2023 there was an attempt to take power by former members of the security forces with political sympathies to the APC (Rukanga 2024).”

• cites Rukanga 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Sierra Leone seems to have fallen into a pattern in which each new administration pledges to tackle corruption but adopts strategies aimed more at appealing to domestic and international constituencies in the short-term rather than laying a foundation for longer-term success through more transparency in public procurement and beneficial ownership of companies.

“The country seems to have fallen into a pattern in which each new administration pledges to tackle corruption, but adopts strategies that are aimed more at appealing to domestic and international constituencies in the short-term; rather than laying a foundation for longer-term success through more transparency in public procurement and beneficial ownership of companies (Stephenson 2020).”

• cites Stephenson 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

2025 Afrobarometer data shows that over the last 10 years there has been a 9 per cent improvement in citizens' perceptions about corruption in the judiciary, from 47 per cent in 2015 thinking the system corrupt to 36 per cent in 2025.

“2025 Afrobarometer data shows that over the last 10 years there has been a 9 per cent improvement in citizens' perceptions about corruption in the judiciary, from 47 per cent in 2015 thinking the system corrupt to 36 per cent in 2025.”

• cites Afrobarometer 2025cNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Observance of due rules of impartial and equitable treatment in the operations of the criminal justice and penal systems in Sierra Leone is poor.

“Observance of due rules of impartial and equitable treatment in the operations of the criminal justice and penal systems is poor.”

Sierra Leone is effectively free of paramilitary units, private armies and warlords.

“Sierra Leone is effectively free of paramilitary units, private armies and warlords.”

Three-quarters of respondents in Afrobarometer 2025 questioned whether they would be able to afford a court process in the first place.

“threequarters questioning whether they would be able to afford a court process in the first place (Afrobarometer 2025c).”

• cites Afrobarometer 2025cNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

People's confidence in the legal system to deliver fair and effective justice in Sierra Leone is low.

“People's confidence in the legal system to deliver fair and effective justice is low.”

Across all communities and demographics engaged in FGDs, the predominant perception was that corruption, social status and political standing can influence the fairness and effectiveness of a court's decision, at all levels.

“Across all communities and demographics engaged in FGDs, the predominant perception was that corruption, social status and political standing can influence the fairness and effectiveness of a court's decision, at all levels.”

During FGDs in Freetown, Bo, Makeni and Kenema, participants said they pay unofficial 'fees' at most places where they seek public service-including schools, government clinics, courts and government ministries.

“During the FGDs in Freetown, Bo, Makeni and Kenema, participants said they pay unofficial 'fees' at most places where they seek public service-including schools, government clinics, courts and government ministries”

In most rural areas, FGD participants expressed their preference for seeking justice under the customary system, arguing that they have better knowledge of the process, greater familiarity with the people in charge and easier access (lower costs and more expedited processes).

“For now, in most rural areas FGD participants expressed their preference for seeking justice under the customary system, arguing that they have better knowledge of the process, greater familiarity with the people in charge and easier access (lower costs and more expedited processes).”

In particular, there are restrictions on freedom of expression and assembly for citizens seeking to express a dissenting view in Sierra Leone.

“In particular, there are restrictions on freedom of expression and assembly for citizens seeking to express a dissenting view.”

Citizens' support for multiparty politics in Sierra Leone remains high.

“citizens' support for multiparty politics remains high”

The political nation is not inclusive of all those who live within the territory because citizenship at birth is limited to persons of 'negroid-African' descent.

“The political nation is not inclusive of all those who live within the territory, on account of the fact that citizenship at birth is limited to persons of 'negroid-African' descent.”

The effectiveness of Parliament in Sierra Leone to support the quality of democracy is inhibited by its inability to offer effective oversight of the executive, leading to it becoming more a 'rubber stamp' than a tool for scrutiny and accountability.

“The effectiveness of Parliament in Sierra Leone to support the quality of democracy is inhibited by its inability to offer effective oversight of the executive, leading to it becoming more a 'rubber stamp' than a tool for scrutiny and accountability.”

The nature of political parties, especially their ethnic-based patron-client relationships, shapes winner-takes-all governance practices.

“The nature of political parties, especially their ethnic-based patron-client relationships, shapes winner-takes-all governance practices.”

Co-option is one of the approaches used to shrink the civic space.

“Co-option is one of those approaches.”

Sierra Leone's democracy-building project is showing mixed results.

“However, Sierra Leone's democracy-building project is showing mixed results.”

The judiciary's ability to maintain de facto independence from the executive remains in question.

“The judiciary's ability to maintain de facto independence from the executive remains in question, as is the case for many institutions in Sierra Leone.”

The politicization of professional bodies limits their ability to provide impartial assessments or statements on key sectoral developments.

“The politicization of such professional bodies limits their ability to provide impartial assessments or statements on key sectoral developments.”

The fact that the ECSL's figurehead is appointed by the executive continues to pose a challenge to its perceived and actual independence.

“The fact that its figurehead is appointed by the executive continues to pose a challenge to its perceived and actual independence.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The ECSL's figurehead is appointed by the executive.

Combined with a high turnover of MPs, this creates capacity shortcomings that impact on the quality of debate and deliberation.

“Combined with a high turnover of MPs, this creates capacity shortcomings that impact on the quality of debate and deliberation.”

Under Sierra Leone's Public Order Act 1965, a demonstration can only take place upon the police department's approval of a written request from the organizers.

“Under Sierra Leone's Public Order Act 1965, a demonstration can only take place upon the police department's approval of a written request from the organizers.”

The plurality of voluntary organizations and their largely unhindered ability to operate indicates that freedom of association is respected in Sierra Leone.

“The plurality of voluntary organizations and their largely unhindered ability to operate indicates that freedom of association is respected in the country.”

At least 20 civilians were killed in the August 2022 protests in Sierra Leone.

“at least 20 civilians were killed”

• cites Amnesty International 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

No investigations into the actions of the police were launched following the August 2022 protests in Sierra Leone.

“No investigations into the actions of the police were launched following protests in August 2022”

• cites Amnesty International 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

A special investigative committee set up by the government only recommended training to improve subsequent police conduct following the August 2022 protests.

“a special investigative committee set up by the government only recommending training to improve subsequent police conduct”

• cites Amnesty International 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.