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Cited by 91Wildlife Ecology and ConservationAnimal Ecology and Behavior StudiesSpecies Distribution and Climate Change

Home range, activity cycle and natal den usage of a female Sunda pangolin Manis javanica (Mammalia: Pholidota) in Singapore

Open access
Lim, NTL, Ng, PKL·2008·Endangered Species Research
DOI 10.3354/esr00032
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Abstract

Here we present the first field report on the ecology of a single female Sunda pangolin and her young in their natural habitat on an offshore island of Singapore.Observations of this event were made possible by the use of radio-telemetry and infrared-triggered camera traps.Only one offspring was recorded from this birth event and the period of maternal care was approximately 3 to 4 mo.A total of 3 natal dens were used throughout the monitoring period, and hollows of large trees (> 50 cm diameter at breast height, DBH) were associated with all dens.The 100 and 95% home range estimated by minimum convex polygons is 6.97 and 5.63 ha, respectively.The daily active period of the pangolin was 127 ± 13.1 min, and peak activity levels were between 03:00 and 06:00 h.The findings of this report are discussed in relation to the conservation challenges confronting this species.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This is the first field report on the ecology of a single female Sunda pangolin and her young in natural habitat on Pulau Tekong, Singapore, using radio-telemetry and infrared-triggered camera traps. It documents one offspring, approximately 3 to 4 mo of maternal care, three natal dens in large tree hollows, a small home range, and mainly nocturnal activity with peak activity between 03:00 and 06:00 h.

Key findings

  • One offspring was recorded; maternal care lasted approximately 3 to 4 mo (mid-September till mid-December/early January).
  • Three natal dens were used; all were associated with hollows of large trees (>50 cm DBH). Dens were used consecutively for a mean of 9.3 ± 2.7 d (mean ± SE; n = 7); Den C was used only once for 24 consecutive d.
  • The 100 and 95% minimum convex polygon home ranges were 6.97 and 5.63 ha, respectively.
  • Daily active period was 127 ± 13.1 min (mean ± SE; n = 30), with peak activity from 03:00 to 06:00 h; diurnal activity was recorded only in December. There were 5 occasions when MJ6 and her young exited the den together, with mean activity duration of 165.8 ± 43.5 min (mean ± SE; n = 5).

Methods

  • The study was conducted on Pulau Tekong, Singapore. A female Sunda pangolin (MJ6) was captured on 1 September 2005, with body mass 6.1 kg, head–body length 43 cm, and tail length 43 cm; a 21 g radio transmitter was fitted to tail scales, and locations were recorded by visual confirmation with GPS accuracy ≤15 m.
  • Infrared-triggered camera traps were placed at den entrances, operational 24 h a day with a 10 s interval between successive images; activity periods were determined from exit and re-entry timings, excluding incomplete records.
  • Home range was calculated by 100 and 95% minimum convex polygons using Ranges 7 software; den characteristics recorded included den description, tree DBH, entrance diameter, and number of days used.

Limitations

  • The paper states that the study is based on observations of only one female pangolin; radiotracking was limited because the animal was cautious during reproductive stages, the transmitter antenna was severed on 3 November, and MJ6 was not recaptured to replace the faulty transmitter. It also states that gestation period could not be determined, den usage after reproductive stages could not be observed, and the duration of radiotracking required for a reliable home-range estimate could not be ascertained.
  • The text makes evident that habitat utilization could not be estimated from the limited fixes, triangulation was not performed, and several conclusions—such as the timing of birth and the end of maternal care—are inferred from camera-trap records and limited observations rather than direct continuous observation.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3354/esr00032

Cites

21 of 21 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 13 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Most of the 9 other fixes were within the area enclosed by the 3 dens.

    “Most of the 9 fixes obtained were within the area enclosed by the 3 dens”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingcitation

    The recorded home range of female MJ6 was only 10 to 24% of the home ranges of adult males observed by N.T.L.L. (unpubl.data).

    “The recorded home range of the female MJ6 was only 10 to 24% of the home ranges of adult males observed by N.T.L.L. (unpubl.data).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites N.T.L.L. (unpubl.data)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Findingown data

    MJ6 used a total of 3 natal dens throughout the monitoring period.

    “A total of 3 natal dens were used throughout the monitoring period”
    • Also stated in: § Den usage · plain
      “MJ6 was found to be utilizing a total of 3 dens”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Dens were used consecutively for a mean period of 9.3 ± 2.7 d (mean ± SE; n = 7) before the animals moved to another den.

    “dens were used consecutively for a mean period of 9.3 ± 2.7 d (mean ± SE; n = 7) before the animals moved to another den.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Only one offspring was recorded from the birth event of the female Sunda pangolin MJ6.

    “Only one offspring was recorded from this birth event and the period of maternal care was approximately 3 to 4 mo.”
    • Also stated in: § OBSERVATIONS · plain
      “This was the first record of the young of MJ6.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 11
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 12

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    78% of the activity (7 out of 9 fixes) recorded throughout the entire period were within the boundaries of the 3 dens, and the remaining 2 fixes were only about 35 m away from the outer boundaries set by the 3 dens.

    “This is because 78% of the activity (7 out of 9 fixes) recorded throughout the entire period are within the boundaries of the 3 dens (Fig. 8) and the remaining 2 fixes were only about 35 m away from the outer boundaries set by the 3 dens.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    MJ6 captured on 1 September 2005 had a body mass of 6.1 kg, a head-body length of 43 cm and a tail length of 43 cm.

    “The female Manis javanica (MJ6) captured on 1 September 2005 had a body mass of 6.1 kg, a head -body length of 43 cm and a tail length of 43 cm.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Dens A and B were revisited after moving to another den, while Den C was only utilized once for 24 consecutive days.

    “While Dens A and B were revisited by the pangolins after moving to another den, Den C was only utilized once (for 24 consecutive d).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The 100% and 95% minimum convex polygon home range estimates for MJ6 were 6.97 ha and 5.63 ha, respectively.

    “The 100 and 95% home range estimated by minimum convex polygons is 6.97 and 5.63 ha, respectively.”
    • Also stated in: § Home range · plain
      “The 100 and 95% MCP home range is 6.97 and 5.63 ha, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Two of the dens had only one entrance while the third had 2 entrances leading to the same tree hollow.

    “Two of the dens had only one entrance while the third had 2 entrances leading to the same tree hollow.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Some diurnal activity by MJ6 occurred between 08:00 and 18:00 h, and this diurnal activity was recorded only in December.

    “there was some activity during the daytime (i.e.08:00 to 18:00 h), and this diurnal activity was only recorded in the month of December.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The shift in MJ6's activity towards daylight hours took place in December during the final periods of den usage and coincided with an increase in activity recorded from MJ6 together with her young.

    “The shift in activity towards the daylight hours took place in December during the final periods of den usage and coincided with an increase in activity recorded from MJ6 together with her young.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The observation on 3 November lends support to Prater's example that a baby pangolin doubled its mass in 4 mo, and to his view that growth in young pangolins is rapid.

    “This observation lends support to Prater's (1965) example, where a baby pangolin doubled its mass in 4 mo, and to his view that growth in young pangolins is rapid.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Prater's (1965)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A captive female Chinese pangolin Manis pentadactyla at Taipei Zoo is reported to have exhibited maternal care for as long as 6 mo.

    “a captive female Chinese pangolin Manis pentadactyla at Taipei Zoo is reported to have exhibited maternal care for as long as 6 mo (S.F. Chen, pers.comm.)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites S.F. Chen, pers.comm.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Pangolins are largely nocturnal.

    “Pangolins are largely nocturnal and have adapted to a highly specialized diet of ants and termites (Lekagul & McNeely 1988).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lekagul & McNeely 1988

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The vast difference between the home-range size of MJ6 and other adult males could be due to a limited number of suitable natal dens and reduced mobility during the reproductive stages.

    “Therefore, the vast difference between the home-range size of MJ6 and other adult males could be due to a limited number of suitable natal dens and also a result of reduced mobility during the reproductive stages”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    With the present rate of habitat degradation in Southeast Asia, the decrease in mature forests might reduce the number of suitable natal dens, and this will prove to be a limitation for population sustainability.

    “However, with the present rate of habitat degradation in Southeast Asia, the decrease in mature forests might reduce the number of suitable natal dens, and this will prove to be a limitation for the population sustainability.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Habitat degradation in Southeast Asia is occurring at a rate that will decrease mature forests.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The gestation period cannot be determined in this study.

    “Unfortunately, the gestation period cannot be determined in this study”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Of the 4 Asiatic pangolins, the Sunda pangolin appears to be the species most threatened by trade.

    “of the 4 Asiatic pangolins, the Sunda pangolin appears to be the species most threatened by trade (Bräutigam et al. 1994).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bräutigam et al. 1994

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    At least 85 d were required to achieve 90% of the home-range estimate for Manis temminckii at 180 d.

    “Heath & Coulson (1997a) reported that at least 85 d were required to achieve 90% of the home-range estimate for Manis temminckii at 180 d.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Heath & Coulson (1997a)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Incomplete photo records, when either the exit or the re-entry was absent, were excluded from analysis.

    “Incomplete photo records (i.e. when either the exit or the re-entry was absent) were excluded from analysis.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given

    Much of what is now known about Manis javanica is anecdotal.

    “Much of what is now known about M. javanica is anecdotal.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    There was no access to the study site from 12 to 30 September due to military training constraints.

    “There was no access to the study site from 12 to 30 September due to military training constraints.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Tagged adult male pangolins often rest amongst clumps of Imperata cylindrica grasses or on branches of tall trees.

    “This is in contrast to tagged adult male pangolins, which often rest amongst clumps of Imperata cylindrica grasses or on branches of tall trees (N.T. L. Lim unpubl.data).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites N.T. L. Lim unpubl.data

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Pangolins are believed to give birth to a single offspring each time, although twins have been reported.

    “Pangolins are believed to give birth to a single offspring each time, although twins have been reported (e.g.Payne & Francis 1998).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Payne & Francis 1998

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

20 of 20

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Pangolins will take refuge in a safe location such as a tree hollow when giving birth and providing maternal care for their young.

    “This is because it is highly probable that pangolins will take refuge in a safe location (e.g.tree hollow; Den A), as opposed to a clump of tall grasses (as, for example, on 7 September), when giving birth and providing maternal care for their young.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Pangolins are elusive.

    “because of the elusive nature of the pangolins and the rare opportunity to radio-tag a female Manis javanica during its reproductive stages, the information collected will contribute significantly towards our knowledge of the life history and ecology of the Sunda pangolin.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Pangolins forage at a slow speed.

    “Furthermore, knowing that pangolins forage at a slow speed and MJ6 was only active for about 2 h each night, it is unlikely that its actual home range would differ greatly from the estimated values.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Habitat degradation in Southeast Asia is occurring at a rate that will decrease mature forests.

    “However, with the present rate of habitat degradation in Southeast Asia, the decrease in mature forests might reduce the number of suitable natal dens, and this will prove to be a limitation for the population sustainability.”
4 of 4

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • November foraging trip contradicts claim that pre-December records showed MJ6 alone

    Minor

    The results describe a complete exit-and-entry record of MJ6 foraging with her young on 15 November. The discussion says complete activity records before December always showed MJ6 alone, except when relocating to another den.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Chou LM, Tan HTW, Yeo DCJ (2006) The natural heritage of Singapore. Prentice Hall, Singapore Fang LX (1981) Investigation on pangolins by following their trace and observing their cave. Nature (Beijing Natural History Museum) 3:64-66 (in Chinese)
  2. South AB, Kenward RE, Walls SS (2005) Ranges 7 v 1.0: For the analysis of tracking and location data. Anatrack, Wareham White GC, Garrot RA (1990) Analysis of radio-tracking data. Academic Press, New York

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Lim, N., & Ng, P.
Affiliations
National University of Singapore (SG)
Corresponding author
Lim, NTL
Venue
Endangered Species Research
Publisher
Inter-Research Science Center
Published
2008-01-18
Volume
4
Pages
233-240
ISSN
  • 1613-4796 (ISSN-L)
  • 1863-5407
DOI
10.3354/esr00032
OpenAlex
W2170998909
Semantic Scholar
1dde97f67407141a719d0028d3ec75a0e4eed4d1
Cited by
91
References
17
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 3
FWCI
1.73
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Endangered Species Research (publishedVersion)
  • National University of Singapore (submittedVersion)
Funders
Wildlife Conservation Society
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Animal Ecology and Behavior Studies
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecological Modeling › Species Distribution and Climate Change
Keywords
Sunda pangolin, Manis javanica, home range, activity cycles, maternal care, tree cavities, radio telemetry, pangolin conservation

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