Comprehensive review of additively manufactured biodegradable magnesium implants for repairing bone defects from biomechanical and biodegradable perspectives
Open accessAbstract
Bone defect repair is a complicated clinical problem, particularly when the defect is relatively large and the bone is unable to repair itself. Magnesium and its alloys have been introduced as versatile biomaterials to repair bone defects because of their excellent biocompatibility, osteoconductivity, bone-mimicking biomechanical features, and non-toxic and biodegradable properties. Therefore, magnesium alloys have become a popular research topic in the field of implants to treat critical bone defects. This review explores the popular Mg alloy research topics in the field of bone defects. Bibliometric analyses demonstrate that the degradation control and mechanical properties of Mg alloys are the main research focus for the treatment of bone defects. Furthermore, the additive manufacturing (AM) of Mg alloys is a promising approach for treating bone defects using implants with customized structures and functions. This work reviews the state of research on AM-Mg alloys and the current challenges in the field, mainly from the two aspects of controlling the degradation rate and the fabrication of excellent mechanical properties. First, the advantages, current progress, and challenges of the AM of Mg alloys for further application are discussed. The main mechanisms that lead to the rapid degradation of AM-Mg are then highlighted. Next, the typical methods and processing parameters of laser powder bed fusion fabrication on the degradation characteristics of Mg alloys are reviewed. The following section discusses how the above factors affect the mechanical properties of AM-Mg and the recent research progress. Finally, the current status of research on AM-Mg for bone defects is summarized, and some research directions for AM-Mg to drive the application of clinical orthopedic implants are suggested.
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Magnesium offers the advantage of degrading in vivo, eliminating the need for secondary surgery to remove the implant.
“Magnesium has density and strength similar to natural bone, and offers the advantage of degrading in vivo, eliminating the need for secondary surgery to remove the implant [33,34].”
From Functional Surface Modification of Magnesium Implant by Drug-Loaded Biodegradable Polymer Coating (2026) · cites this paper as [34]
Magnesium and its alloys have been extensively studied as orthopedic implant materials due to their excellent mechanical properties and biodegradable characteristics.
“Magnesium and its alloys have been extensively studied as orthopedic implant materials due to their excellent mechanical properties and biodegradable characteristics.”
From Functional Surface Modification of Magnesium Implant by Drug-Loaded Biodegradable Polymer Coating (2026) · cites this paper as [34]
Magnesium has density and strength similar to natural bone.
“Magnesium has density and strength similar to natural bone, and offers the advantage of degrading in vivo, eliminating the need for secondary surgery to remove the implant [33,34].”
From Functional Surface Modification of Magnesium Implant by Drug-Loaded Biodegradable Polymer Coating (2026) · cites this paper as [34]
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“Based on this phenomenon, researchers have utilized a purification approach to enhance the corrosion resistance of Mg alloys (Yu et al., 2018).”
BackgroundHuang, S., Wang, B., Zhang, X., Lu, F., Wang, Z., Tian, S., Li, D., Yang, J., Cao, F., Cheng, L., et al. (2020) · Biomaterials · doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2020.119829 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Self-citationJiang, Y., Shi, K., Zhou, L., He, M., Zhu, C., Wang, J., Li, J., Li, Y., Liu, L., Sun, D., et al. (2022) · Bioactive Materials · doi:10.1016/j.bioactmat.2022.06.002 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Corrosion fatigue behavior of additively manufactured biodegradable porous zinc
Li, Y., Li, W., Bobbert, F. S. L., Lietaert, K., Dong, J.-H., Leeflang, M. A., Zhou, J., & ZADPOOR, A. A. (2020) · Acta Biomaterialia · doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2020.02.001 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Zhang, T., Wei, Q., Zhou, H., Jing, Z., Liu, X., Zheng, Y., Cai, H., Wei, F., Jiang, L., Yu, M., et al. (2021) · Bioactive Materials · doi:10.1016/j.bioactmat.2021.03.030 · Cited by 100 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Some progress has been made, as compared to approaches that require allogeneic/autogenous bone fillers (Hou et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2021a).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationZhang, Y., Li, C., Zhang, W., Deng, J., Nie, Y., Du, X., Qin, L., & Lai, Y. (2021) · Bioactive Materials · doi:10.1016/j.bioactmat.2021.12.032 · Cited by 100 · cited 2× · see citing works
“, 2021), promotion of bone implant healing (Golafshan et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2022), and inhibition of implant infections (Xie et al.”
BackgroundExperimental Investigation on Selective Laser Melting of Bulk Net-Shape Pure Magnesium
Hu, D., Wang, Y., Zhang, D., Hao, L., Jiang, J., Li, Z., & Chen, Y. (2015) · Materials and Manufacturing Processes · doi:10.1080/10426914.2015.1025963 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Biodegradation-affected fatigue behavior of additively manufactured porous magnesium
Li, Y., Jahr, H., Zhang, X., Leeflang, M. A., Li, W., Pouran, B., Tichelaar, F. D., Weinans, H., Zhou, J., & ZADPOOR, A. A. (2019) · Additive manufacturing · doi:10.1016/j.addma.2019.05.013 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Recent Advances on High‐Performance Polyaryletherketone Materials for Additive Manufacturing
Chen, P., Wang, H., Su, J. D., Tian, Y., Wen, S., Su, B., Cao, Y., Chen, B., Zhou, K., Yan, C., et al. (2022) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.202200750 · Cited by 98 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Therefore, it has been extensively investigated for the fabrication of bone implants using polymers FIGURE 1 YS (MPa) and elastic modulus (GPa) of Mg and its alloys are more similar to natural bone than those of other biodegradable metallic materials (such as Fe and Zn) and Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) (Chen et al., 20…”
BackgroundSelf-citationLiang, H., Chao, L., Xie, D., Yang, Y., Shi, J., Zhang, Y., Xue, B., Shen, L., Tian, Z., Li, L., et al. (2022) · Composites Part B Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.compositesb.2022.110057 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Jo, J.-H., Kang, B.-G., Shin, K. S., Kim, H., Hahn, B., Park, D.-S., & Koh, Y. (2011) · Journal of Materials Science Materials in Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10856-011-4431-3 · Cited by 93 · cited 13× · see citing works
“Another notable consideration is that a continuous gas flow should carefully remove the evaporated fumes emitted during the L-PBF of Mg.”
BackgroundInfluentialGao, C., Meng, Y., Shuai, C., Peng, S., & Deng, Y. (2019) · Journal of Material Science and Technology · doi:10.1016/j.jmst.2019.06.010 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Selective laser melted Fe-Mn bone scaffold: microstructure, corrosion behavior and cell response
Shuai, C., Yang, W., Yang, Y., Pan, H., He, C., Qi, F., Xie, D., & Liang, H. (2019) · Materials Research Express · doi:10.1088/2053-1591/ab62f5 · Cited by 93 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Similarly, an L-PBF Fe-Mn alloy demonstrated a significantly higher YS than that of L-PBF pure Fe (Shuai et al., 2020).”
BackgroundVelikokhatnyi, O. I., & Kumta, P. N. (2009) · Acta Biomaterialia · doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2009.08.016 · Cited by 86 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Additionally, after alloying Mg with Ca and Y, a more stable hydroxide layer with a lower chemical reactivity is formed on the surface of the Mg matrix, making the alloys more stable in simulated body fluid (Velikokhatnyi and Kumta, 2010).”
BackgroundDesign of experiments approach in AZ31 powder selective laser melting process optimization
Pawlak, A., Rosienkiewicz, M., & Chlebus, E. (2016) · Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.acme.2016.07.007 · Cited by 86 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The curves in Figure 5 illustrate the effect of the laser energy on the microhardness of L-PBF alloys, where an increase in the energy density results in a significant increase in the grain size and, ultimately, in a decrease in microhardness, which enables the L-PBF technique to yield finer grain sizes than the class…”
BackgroundAdvances in micro-arc oxidation coatings on Mg-Li alloys
Jin, S., Ma, X., Wu, R., Wang, G., Zhang, J., Krit, B. L., Betsofen, S. Y., & Liu, B. (2022) · Applied Surface Science Advances · doi:10.1016/j.apsadv.2022.100219 · Cited by 86 · cited 1× · see citing works
“For example, it was demonstrated that the corrosion resistance of a treated WE43-Mg alloy was significantly enhanced by coating the MAOed alloy with chitosan and polystyrene layer-by-layer (Zhen et al., 2015; Jin et al., 2022).”
BackgroundSelf-citationIn vitro biodegradation behavior of magnesium and magnesium alloy
Wang, H., & Shi, Z. (2011) · Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part B Applied Biomaterials · doi:10.1002/jbm.b.31769 · Cited by 84 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Numerous researchers have devoted extensive efforts to modulating the in vitro and in vivo AM Mg alloy degradation rate to address the long-term safety of porous scaffolds, accomplishing inspiring progress (Wang and Shi, 2011; Dutta et al., 2020; Nasr Azadani et al., 2022).”
BackgroundLi, D., Li, Y., Shrestha, A., Wang, S., Wu, Q., Li, L., Guan, C., Wang, C., Fu, T., Liu, W., et al. (2019) · Advanced Healthcare Materials · doi:10.1002/adhm.201900002 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Wieding, J., Souffrant, R., Mittelmeier, W., & Bader, R. (2012) · Medical Engineering & Physics · doi:10.1016/j.medengphy.2012.06.006 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Xu, R., Zhao, M., Zhao, Y., Liu, L., Liu, C., Gao, C., Shuai, C., & Atrens, A. (2018) · Materials Letters · doi:10.1016/j.matlet.2018.11.071 · Cited by 76 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Therefore, this technology has unparalleled superiority for manufacturing complex Mg alloy components with enhanced microstructures and biomechanical properties (Xu et al., 2019).”
BackgroundNiu, X., Shen, H., Fu, J., & Feng, J. (2021) · Materials & Design · doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2021.109787 · Cited by 75 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Several studies have demonstrated that the corrosion rates of Mg and its alloys decrease with a decreasing grain size (Marco et al., 2017; Niu et al., 2021).”
BackgroundMagnesium role in additive manufacturing of biomedical implants – Challenges and opportunities
Kaushik, Kumar, B., Kumar, S. S., & Vignesh, M. (2022) · Additive Manufacturing · doi:10.1016/j.addma.2022.102802 · Cited by 74 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The high density can explain the improvement in the mechanical strength and grain TABLE 4 The biomechanical property impact of standard alloying elements in biodegradable Mg alloys (Agarwal et al., 2016; Kumar et al., 2022).”
BackgroundSignificant enhancement of the age-hardening response in Mg–10Sn–3Al–1Zn alloy by Na microalloying
Elsayed, F. R., Sasaki, T., Mendis, C. L., Ohkubo, T., & Hono, K. (2013) · Scripta Materialia · doi:10.1016/j.scriptamat.2013.01.032 · Cited by 73 · cited 1× · see citing works
“It has been demonstrated that adding trace amounts of Na to the Mg-10Sn-3Al-1Zn alloy imparts a significant agehardening effect (Elsayed et al., 2013).”
BackgroundCarluccio, D., Demir, A. G., Bermingham, M. J., & Dargusch, M. S. (2020) · Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A · doi:10.1007/s11661-020-05796-z · Cited by 72 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Third, because Mg has a high thermal expansion, good wettability, and high surface tension, Mg alloys fabricated using L-PBF are susceptible to thermal deformation and powder adhesion (Carluccio et al., 2020).”
BackgroundFatigue and dynamic biodegradation behavior of additively manufactured Mg scaffolds
Wang, Y., Huang, H., Jia, G., Zeng, H., & Yuan, G. (2021) · Acta Biomaterialia · doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2021.08.040 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Natural medicine delivery from biomedical devices to treat bone disorders: A review
Bose, S., Sarkar, N., & Banerjee, D. (2021) · Acta Biomaterialia · doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2021.02.034 · Cited by 70 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Therefore, the stress shielding phenomenon is inevitable, suppressing bone regeneration and resulting in implant inflammation and loosening (Bose et al., 2021).”
BackgroundReview of the Effect of Surface Coating Modification on Magnesium Alloy Biocompatibility
Guo, X., Hu, Y., Yuan, K., & Qiao, Y. (2022) · Materials · doi:10.3390/ma15093291 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Kamboj, N., Ressler, A., & Hussainova, I. (2021) · Materials · doi:10.3390/ma14185338 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
In vivo and in vitro degradation comparison of pure Mg, Mg-10Gd and Mg-2Ag: a short term study
Marco, I., Myrissa, A., Martinelli, E., Feyerabend, F., Willumeit‐Römer, R., Weinberg, A.-M., & der Biest, O. V. (2017) · European Cells and Materials · doi:10.22203/ecm.v033a07 · Cited by 67 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Several studies have demonstrated that the corrosion rates of Mg and its alloys decrease with a decreasing grain size (Marco et al., 2017; Niu et al., 2021).”
BackgroundProduction of High Purity Magnesium Alloys by Melt Purification with Zr
Prasad, A., Uggowitzer, P. J., Shi, Z., & Atrens, A. (2012) · Advanced Engineering Materials · doi:10.1002/adem.201200054 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Yadav, V. S., Sankar, M. R., & Pandey, L. M. (2020) · Journal of Magnesium and Alloys · doi:10.1016/j.jma.2020.05.005 · Cited by 64 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The preparation of BG coatings on the surface of Mg alloys typically involves sol-gel dip coating and electrophoretic deposition methods (Yadav et al., 2020).”
MethodTao, J.-X., Zhao, M., Zhao, Y., Yin, D., Liu, L., Gao, C., Shuai, C., & Atrens, A. (2020) · Journal of Magnesium and Alloys · doi:10.1016/j.jma.2019.10.004 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Recent Progress in Functionalized Coatings for Corrosion Protection of Magnesium Alloys—A Review
Li, B., Zhang, Z., Liu, T., Qiu, Z., Su, Y., Zhang, J., Lin, C., & Wang, L. (2022) · Materials · doi:10.3390/ma15113912 · Cited by 62 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Because a large amount of physical polymer coating forms on the Mg substrate through physical interaction via immersion or dipping, the layer tends to easily detach from the substrate when inserted into the bone (Li et al., 2022).”
BackgroundShuai, C., Zhou, Y., Yang, Y., Feng, P., Liu, L., He, C., Zhao, M., Yang, S. L., Gao, C., & Wu, P. (2017) · Materials · doi:10.3390/ma10030307 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Pan, C., Sun, X., Xu, G., Su, Y., & Liu, D. (2019) · Materials Science and Engineering C · doi:10.1016/j.msec.2019.110397 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Singh, S. K., Singh, G., Bala, N., & Aggarwal, K. (2020) · International Journal of Biological Macromolecules · doi:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.02.208 · Cited by 60 · cited 1× · see citing works
“, 2020), and bioglass (BG) (Zhang et al., 2016; Duan et al., 2020; Singh et al., 2020), have been utilized as reinforcement particles in Mg-based MMCs.”
MethodWang, H., Chen, P., Wu, H., Chen, A., Wu, S., Su, J. D., Wang, M., Feng, X., Cao, Y., Yang, L., et al. (2022) · Additive manufacturing · doi:10.1016/j.addma.2022.102961 · Cited by 58 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Therefore, it has been extensively investigated for the fabrication of bone implants using polymers FIGURE 1 YS (MPa) and elastic modulus (GPa) of Mg and its alloys are more similar to natural bone than those of other biodegradable metallic materials (such as Fe and Zn) and Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) (Chen et al., 20…”
BackgroundDezfuli, S. N., Huan, Z., Mol, J. M. C., Leeflang, M. A., Chang, J., & Zhou, J. (2017) · Materials Science and Engineering C · doi:10.1016/j.msec.2017.05.021 · Cited by 56 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Moreover, the preparation of Mg metal matrix composites (MMC) by adding reinforcing particles is another novel method to improve the degradation resistance (Dezfuli et al., 2017a; Dezfuli et al., 2017b; Kumar et al., 2019; Nie et al., 2022).”
MethodThe microstructure, mechanical properties and degradation behavior of laser-melted Mg Sn alloys
Zhou, Y., Wu, P., Yang, Y., Gao, D., Feng, P., Gao, C., Wu, H. P., Liu, Y., Bian, H., & Shuai, C. (2016) · Journal of Alloys and Compounds · doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2016.06.068 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
In vitro and 48 weeks in vivo performances of 3D printed porous Fe-30Mn biodegradable scaffolds
Nie, Y., Chen, G., Peng, H., Tang, S., Zhou, Z., Pei, F., & Shen, B. (2020) · Acta Biomaterialia · doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2020.12.028 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Magnesium facilitates the healing of atypical femoral fractures: A single-cell transcriptomic study
Zheng, N., Xu, J., Ruan, Y. C., Chang, L., Wang, X., Yao, H., Wang, J., Zhang, R., Xue, Q., Tang, N., et al. (2022) · Materials Today · doi:10.1016/j.mattod.2021.11.028 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
A Review of SLMed Magnesium Alloys: Processing, Properties, Alloying Elements and Postprocessing
Liu, S., & Guo, H. (2020) · Metals · doi:10.3390/met10081073 · Cited by 51 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Optimized heat treatment after AM can effectively reduce defects and residual thermal FIGURE 5 The effect of energy density on themicrohardness of L-PBF Mg alloys (Liu and Guo, 2020) (A) Effect of energy density on themicrohardness (B) Enlarged image of the grey area in the effect of energy density on the microhardnes…”
BackgroundSun, Y., Helmholz, H., & Willumeit‐Römer, R. (2020) · Journal of Magnesium and Alloys · doi:10.1016/j.jma.2020.09.011 · Cited by 51 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Instead, clinical complications and the urgent need for innovative treatments mainly lie in long weight-bearing bones, such as fractures of the femoral and tibial shafts (Sun et al., 2021).”
BackgroundWillbold, E., Weizbauer, A., Loos, A., Seitz, J., Angrisani, N., Windhagen, H. J., & Reifenrath, J. (2016) · Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A · doi:10.1002/jbm.a.35893 · Cited by 49 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The Mg-Nd binary alloy exhibits significantly enhanced mechanical properties and corrosion resistance (Willbold et al., 2017).”
BackgroundYou, M., Echeverry‐Rendón, M., Zhang, L., Niu, J., Zhang, J., Jia, P., & Yuan, G. (2020) · Materials Science and Engineering C · doi:10.1016/j.msec.2020.111734 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Zheng, H., Li, Z., You, C., Liu, D. B., & Chen, M. F. (2017) · Bioactive Materials · doi:10.1016/j.bioactmat.2016.12.004 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Chen, C., Tan, J., Wu, W. G., Petrini, L., Zhang, L., Shi, Y., Cattarinuzzi, E., Jia, P., Huang, H., Ding, W., et al. (2018) · ACS Biomaterials Science & Engineering · doi:10.1021/acsbiomaterials.8b00700 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Ren, T., Gao, X., Xu, C., Yang, L., Guo, P., Liu, H. H., Chen, Y., Sun, W., & Song, Z. (2019) · Materials and Corrosion · doi:10.1002/maco.201810648 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Hou, G., Liu, B., Tian, Y., Liu, Z., Zhou, F., Ji, H., Zhang, Z., Guo, Y., Lv, Y., Yang, Z., et al. (2020) · Journal of Materials Science Materials in Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10856-020-06406-5 · Cited by 42 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Some progress has been made, as compared to approaches that require allogeneic/autogenous bone fillers (Hou et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2021a).”
BackgroundSelf-citationXu, J., Hu, P., Zhang, X., Chen, J., Wang, J., Zhang, J., Chen, Z., Yu, M., Chung, Y. W., Wang, Y., et al. (2021) · Bioactive Materials · doi:10.1016/j.bioactmat.2021.06.034 · Cited by 42 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Osteogenic differentiation Magnesium enhances osteoblast differentiation by increasing collagen-X secretion and activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) and β-catenin (β-Cat), promoting bone formation by the upregulation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling (Xu et al., 2022)”
BackgroundGao, X., Lin, X., Yu, J., Li, Y., Hu, Y., Fan, W., Shi, S., & Huang, W. (2019) · Scripta Materialia · doi:10.1016/j.scriptamat.2019.06.007 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Xu, B., Lee, K., Li, W., Yaszemski, M. J., Lu, L., Yang, Y., & Wang, S. (2021) · Materials & Design · doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2021.110150 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Dezfuli, S. N., Leeflang, M. A., Huan, Z., Chang, J., & Zhou, J. (2016) · Journal of the mechanical behavior of biomedical materials/Journal of mechanical behavior of biomedical materials · doi:10.1016/j.jmbbm.2016.10.010 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Duan, H., Cao, C., Wang, X., Tao, J., Li, C., Xin, H., Yang, J., Song, Y., & Ai, F. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-75328-7 · Cited by 39 · cited 2× · see citing works
“, 2020), and bioglass (BG) (Zhang et al., 2016; Duan et al., 2020; Singh et al., 2020), have been utilized as reinforcement particles in Mg-based MMCs.”
MethodSurface modification by natural biopolymer coatings on magnesium alloys for biomedical applications
Zhen, Z., Xi, T., & Zheng, Y. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-1-78242-078-1.00011-6 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Self-citationSchultze, J. W., Davepon, B., Kármán, F. H., Rosenkranz, C., Schreiber, A., & Voigt, O. (2004) · Corrosion Engineering Science and Technology The International Journal of Corrosion Processes and Corrosion Control · doi:10.1179/147842204225016813 · Cited by 37 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Schultze et al. (2004) found that textured AZ31 exhibited higher corrosion resistance when the crystallographic plane was the significant plane parallel to the surface.”
BackgroundIn vivo degradation and bone formation behaviors of hydroxyapatite-coated Mg alloys in rat femur
Hiromoto, S., Nozoe, E., Hanada, K., Yoshimura, T., Shima, K., Kibe, T., Nakamura, N., & Doi, K. (2021) · Materials Science and Engineering C · doi:10.1016/j.msec.2021.111942 · Cited by 37 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Several bioactive bioceramics, including Hydroxyapatite (HA) (Shuai et al., 2017a; Hiromoto et al., 2021), Tricalcium phosphate (TCP) (Zheng et al.”
BackgroundNie, X., Zhang, X., Lei, B., Shi, Y., & Yang, J. (2022) · Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology · doi:10.3389/fbioe.2022.842706 · Cited by 37 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Moreover, the preparation of Mg metal matrix composites (MMC) by adding reinforcing particles is another novel method to improve the degradation resistance (Dezfuli et al., 2017a; Dezfuli et al., 2017b; Kumar et al., 2019; Nie et al., 2022).”
MethodZhang, X., Mao, J., Zhou, Y., Ji, F., & Chen, X. (2020) · Journal of Biomaterials Applications · doi:10.1177/0885328220957902 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Yao, Y., Mo, Z., Wu, G., Guo, J., Li, J., Wang, L., & Fan, Y. (2021) · Computers in Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2021.104368 · Cited by 32 · cited 1× · see citing works
“This enables the load distribution and deformation to be optimized under different loading conditions for AM fabrication (Yao et al., 2021).”
MethodMatras, A. (2019) · Materials · doi:10.3390/ma13010009 · Cited by 31 · cited 1× · see citing works
“3.2.3 Surface modification of Mg alloys Surface modification affects the biodegradation rate of AM Mg alloys (Matras, 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialWang, J., Huang, S., Li, Y., Wei, Y., Xi, X., & Cai, K. (2013) · Materials Science and Engineering C · doi:10.1016/j.msec.2013.05.020 · Cited by 30 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Furthermore, adding other alloying elements, such as the toughening element Zn, can be considered to improve the comprehensive performance of the Mg substrate (Wang et al., 2013).”
BackgroundShuai, C., Yang, Y., Peng, S., Gao, C., Feng, P., Chen, J., Liu, Y., Lin, X., Yang, S. L., & Yuan, F. (2017) · Journal of Materials Science Materials in Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10856-017-5945-0 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Kumar, A. M., Hassan, S. F., Sorour, A. A., Paramsothy, M., & Gupta, M. K. (2018) · Metals and Materials International · doi:10.1007/s12540-018-0161-0 · Cited by 26 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Moreover, the preparation of Mg metal matrix composites (MMC) by adding reinforcing particles is another novel method to improve the degradation resistance (Dezfuli et al., 2017a; Dezfuli et al., 2017b; Kumar et al., 2019; Nie et al., 2022).”
MethodCui, Y., Wang, Y., Cui, Z., Qi, W., Wang, J., Ju, P., Zhao, Y., Liu, B., Zhang, T., & Wang, F. (2020) · Materials · doi:10.3390/ma13163651 · Cited by 26 · cited 1× · see citing works
“RE elements can improve the mechanical strength and creep resistance (Cui et al., 2020), refine the grain, and synthesize precipitated phases.”
BackgroundSelf-citationNarita, K., Tian, Q., Johnson, I., Zhang, C., Kobayashi, E., & Liu, H. H. (2019) · Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part B Applied Biomaterials · doi:10.1002/jbm.b.34316 · Cited by 24 · cited 5× · see citing works
“, 2021), Tricalcium phosphate (TCP) (Zheng et al., 2017; Narita et al., 2019; Dang et al., 2020; Pan et al., 2020), and bioglass (BG) (Zhang et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialMechanism for corrosion protection of β-TCP reinforced ZK60 via laser rapid solidification
Deng, Y., Yang, Y., Gao, C., Feng, P., Guo, W., He, C., Chen, J., & Shuai, C. (2017) · International Journal of Bioprinting · doi:10.18063/ijb.v4i1.124 · Cited by 23 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Recent studies have demonstrated that LAM techniques can process MMC materials (Deng et al., 2018; Gao et al., 2019b).”
BackgroundGanguly, P., Jones, E., Panagiotopoulou, V. C., Jha, A., Blanchy, M., Antimisiaris, S. G., Anton, M., Dhuiège, B., Marotta, M., Marjanović, N., et al. (2022) · Injury · doi:10.1016/j.injury.2022.02.036 · Cited by 23 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Trauma, infection, tumors, and other factors can cause irreversible bone defects (Ganguly et al., 2022).”
BackgroundCorrosion behavior of mesoporous bioglass-ceramic coated magnesium alloy under applied forces
Zhang, F., Cai, S., Xu, G., Shen, S., Li, Y., Zhang, M., & Wu, X. (2015) · Journal of the mechanical behavior of biomedical materials/Journal of mechanical behavior of biomedical materials · doi:10.1016/j.jmbbm.2015.11.029 · Cited by 22 · cited 8× · see citing works
“However, the tensile YS of AM pure Mg (51 MPa) is slightly lower than that of cortical bone.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialZou, F., Zhao, N., Fu, X., Diao, J., Ma, Y., Cao, X., Wan, S., Zhong, S., & Wang, Y. (2016) · RSC Advances · doi:10.1039/c5ra26670j · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Classification of 3D printing methods
Izdebska‐Podsiadły, J. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818311-3.00009-4 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Luo, J., Wu, Z., Dai, Y., Wang, X., Ye, R., Huang, H., & Xie, X. (2021) · Surface and Coatings Technology · doi:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2021.127852 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Zhang, Z., Lin, P., Kong, S., Li, X., & Ren, L. (2015) · Optics & Laser Technology · doi:10.1016/j.optlastec.2014.10.021 · Cited by 18 · cited 1× · see citing works
“force to the casting surface, the surface undergoes plastic deformation hardening, inhibiting the formation of fatigue cracks (Zhang et al., 2015; Ji et al., 2022).”
BackgroundChen, J., Wu, P., Wang, Q., Yang, Y., Peng, S., Zhou, Y., Shuai, C., & Deng, Y. (2016) · Metals · doi:10.3390/met6110259 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Skeletal assessment with finite element analysis: relevance, pitfalls and interpretation
Campbell, G. M., & Glüer, C. (2017) · Current Opinion in Rheumatology · doi:10.1097/bor.0000000000000405 · Cited by 18 · cited 1× · see citing works
“FEA has emerged as a practical tool to predict the biomechanical behavior of the bone-implant interface and to identify areas of concentrated stress loading (Campbell and Glüer, 2017; Liu et al., 2022b).”
MethodLow-cycle fatigue behaviour of Mg-9Gd-4Y-2Zn-0.5Zr alloys with different structures
Ji, J., Zheng, J., Jia, L., Zhang, Y., Jia, Y., Shi, Y., Zhang, H., & Xue, Y. J. (2022) · Journal of Magnesium and Alloys · doi:10.1016/j.jma.2022.03.014 · Cited by 16 · cited 1× · see citing works
“force to the casting surface, the surface undergoes plastic deformation hardening, inhibiting the formation of fatigue cracks (Zhang et al., 2015; Ji et al., 2022).”
BackgroundLiu, B., Li, X., Qiu, W., Liu, Z., Zhou, F., Zheng, Y., Wen, P., & Tian, Y. (2022) · Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology · doi:10.3389/fbioe.2022.921545 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citationZhang, Y., Li, J., Lai, H., & Xu, Y. (2018) · Materials · doi:10.3390/ma11020227 · Cited by 14 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Manganese can generate intermetallic compounds with Fe impurities in Mg alloys and precipitate out, reducing the content of impurities in Mg alloys (Zhang et al., 2018a).”
BackgroundInfluence of Texture on the Mechanical Properties of a Mg-6Al-1Zn-0.9Sn Alloy Processed by ECAP
Hong, X., Guo, Z., Zhang, P.-Y., Zhou, Y., & Ma, P.-K. (2021) · Materials · doi:10.3390/ma14102664 · Cited by 11 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Furthermore, microstructure refinement is a method used to enhance the mechanical properties of alloys (Xu et al., 2021a), indicating that the effect of adjusting the microstructure of Mg alloys to improve their biomechanical properties has gained increasing interest.”
BackgroundMethodSurface protective coatings on Mg alloys – A review
Chandra, D., & Chauhan, N. R. (2021) · Materials Today Proceedings · doi:10.1016/j.matpr.2021.03.084 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Wang, J., Pan, Y., Wang, W., Cui, H., Feng, R., Cui, X., Gong, B., Zhao, X., & Hou, N. (2021) · Biointerphases · doi:10.1116/6.0000579 · Cited by 4 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Additionally, Zn additions can effectively reduce Fe and Ni impurity elements, thereby reducing the local corrosion of the Mg alloy (Wang et al., 2021a).”
BackgroundInfluentialChen, T., Li, D., Li, Y., & Ji, P. (2019) · Clinical Oral Implants Research · doi:10.1111/clr.7_13509 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Jin, J., Wang, D., Hu, Q., Ruan, C., Yang, Y., Li, D., Wang, G., Zhu, X., Hu, Y., & Lei, P. (2024) · Biomaterials · doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2024.122756 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Research progress of metal-based additive manufacturing in medical implants
Zhai, Y., Zhang, H., Wang, J., & Zhao, D. (2023) · REVIEWS ON ADVANCED MATERIALS SCIENCE · doi:10.1515/rams-2023-0148 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Chaudhari, Y. S., Chaudhari, M. Y., Gholap, A. D., Alam, M. I., Khalid, M., Webster, T. J., Gowri, S., & Faiyazuddin, M. (2025) · Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology · doi:10.3389/fbioe.2025.1617585 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Liu, B., Liu, J., Wang, C., Wang, Z., Min, S., Wang, C., Zheng, Y., Wen, P., & Tian, Y. (2023) · Bioactive Materials · doi:10.1016/j.bioactmat.2023.09.016 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“…the initial morphological and mechanical match to the gradual scaffold degradation and new bone regeneration is expected to assist in achieving “ complete reconstruction ” of defects, which fulfills the mission of promoting the healing process and then degrades completely with no residues [16,17].”
BackgroundSelf-citationMehdizade, M., Eivani, A. R., Tabatabaei, F., Anijdan, S. H. M., & Jafarian, H. R. (2023) · Journal of Materials Research and Technology · doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.08.128 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Khorasani, E., & Vahidi, B. (2025) · Biotechnology and Bioengineering · doi:10.1002/bit.28994 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“These AM techniques allow the fine ‐ tuning of Mg's degradation rate ( < 0.5 mm/year), ensuring controlled remodeling while maintaining mechanical integrity in growing skull structures (Wang et al. 2022).”
InfluentialHassan, M. Z., Aufa, A. N., Brytan, Z., Tański, T., Ren, X., Mazurkiewicz, J., Sani, M. S. M., & Ismail, Z. (2025) · Journal of Materials Research and Technology · doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2025.09.137 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Magnesium-containing implants enhance bone healing: A mechanobiological perspective
Wen, Z., Lei, L., Zhang, H., Jin, Z., Shan, Z., Liu, W., Tong, W., Xu, J., & Qin, L. (2025) · Mechanobiology in Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.mbm.2025.100161 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“84,85 Subse-quently, as hard callus maturation and remodeling commence (around 1.5 – 2 months), the implant's corrosion should progress in tandem with new bone formation, creating complementary trajectories where Mg erosion gradually makes space for regenerating new bone without inducing a…”
InfluentialInternal fixation with biodegradable high purity magnesium screws in the treatment of ankle fracture
Zhao, D., Zhang, T., Wang, W.-D., Wang, Z., Wang, F.-Y., Yang, X., Li, R.-H., Cheng, L.-L., Zhang, Y., Wang, H., et al. (2025) · Journal of Orthopaedic Translation · doi:10.1016/j.jot.2025.01.005 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Once the formation rate was less than the diffusion rate of H 2 , the radiolucent zone would decrease gradually [41].”
Self-citationWang, Z.-M., Liu, J., Han, S., Liu, B., Wang, J., Zeng, S., Wang, C., Min, S., Hu, Y., Peng, B., et al. (2025) · Advanced Functional Materials · doi:10.1002/adfm.202414264 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationMousavian, S. M. H., & Bautin, V. A. (2025) · Journal of Bio- and Tribo-Corrosion · doi:10.1007/s40735-025-01065-x · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Mukarati, T. W., Ngwangwa, H., Sumbwanyambe, M., Mbohwa, C., Msomi, V., & Pandelani, T. (2026) · Journal of Materials Research and Technology · doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2026.02.064 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Wang, W., Zhang, L., Jiang, Y., Cui, D., Hou, K., Ren, S., Zhao, X., Zhang, Y., Yu, N., Qi, C., et al. (2026) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2026.1737444 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Cherqaoui, A., Paternoster, C., & Mantovani, D. (2026) · Materials · doi:10.3390/ma19091789 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Hashmi, A. W., Tian, Y., Wang, C., Wang, D., Sağbaş, B., Puerta, A. P. V., & Sankar, M. R. (2025) · Journal of Alloys and Compounds · doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2025.185179 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationFunctional Surface Modification of Magnesium Implant by Drug-Loaded Biodegradable Polymer Coating
Park, J.-E., Jang, Y.-S., Ko, S.-O., & Lee, M.-H. (2026) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app16031542 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Wei, C., Li, Z., Liang, X., Zhao, Y., Zhu, X., Hua, H., Chen, G., Qin, K., Chen, Z., Shi, C., et al. (2025) · Journal of Zhejiang University SCIENCE B · doi:10.1631/jzus.b2400340 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…has shown that the addition of metal elements to ceramic materials can enhance their mechanical properties to a certain extent (Dong et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2022; Putra et al., 2023) and simultaneously promote the bone angiogenesis and osteogenic coupling processes. β -Tricalcium phosphate (…”
High entropy and biodegradable alloy strategies for biomedical implants with controlled degradation
Abere, D. V., Ojo, S. A., Adejo, O. H., Uzuh, F. D., & Oyatogun, G. M. (2026) · Discover Materials · doi:10.1007/s43939-026-00671-x · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“In contrast, biodegradable metallic systems embrace time-dependent loss of cross-section by corrosion as a design variable, to make implants that will progressively transfer load back to regenerating tissue and avoid secondary removal operations [5–8].”
InfluentialBryzgalov, V. A., Kistanov, A. A., Izosimov, A. A., & Korznikova, E. A. (2025) · Computational Materials Science · doi:10.1016/j.commatsci.2025.113797 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Finite Element Analysis of Zn-0.5 Mg Alloy Bone Plates over Tibia Fracture Model in Rabbit
Zhang, T., Wang, J., Geng, X., Wang, F., Han, X., Yang, X., Wang, W., Zhu, B., Cheng, L., Li, H., et al. (2026) · Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance · doi:10.1007/s11665-025-13137-7 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Approximately 3 months are required for the fracture to form a hard crust and achieve solid fracture healing (Ref 42).”
Zarghami, V. (2026) · Journal of Materials Science Materials in Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10856-026-07102-6 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Histology must con fi rm the absence of chronic in fl ammation and the presence of well-integrated, healthy bone [100, 102, 184, 217].”
Recent Trends in Magnesium Metal Composites: A Review
Adeleke, A. A., Lawal, M. S., Ikubanni, P. P., Anosike-Francis, E. N., Lawal, I. A., Orhadahwe, T. A., Olosho, A. I., Ogedengbe, T. S., & Agboola, O. O. (2023) · International Conference on Multidisciplinary Engineering and Applied Science (ICMEAS) · doi:10.1109/icmeas58693.2023.10429786
“Previous and ongoing research focuses on biodegradable biomaterials' interactions with cellular systems and how they are physiologically impacted by corrosion by-products [25]-[26].”
BackgroundRole of Magnesium and Its Composite for Biomedical Application
Tiwari, A. (2025) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-0055-9.ch013
Therapeutic Potential of 3D-Printed Alloys as Drug-Eluting Implants: Current Progress
Das, S., Carson, L., & Chan, C.-W. (2025) · Metals · doi:10.3390/met16010017
“In degradable Mg-based systems, drug release is also linked to changes in pH, hydrogen evolution, and Mg 2+ flux caused by corrosion [106,110,111,119].”
Reparative osteogenesis around magnesium-containing biodegradable implants in rabbit femoral bones
Movchan, O. S., Kotelyukh, B. A., Savosko, S. I., & Grabovoy, A. N. (2026) · Cell and Organ Transplantology · doi:10.22494/cot.v14-1.189
Kumari, A., & Grewal, R. (2026) · World sustainability series · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-26150-2_29
Biodegradable metallic orthopedic implants: From material design to clinical translation
Liu, H., Zhang, J., Song, B., Wu, H., Zhang, Z., Wang, Z., 白林海, Xie, W., Wang, Y., Hao, S., et al. (2026) · Coordination Chemistry Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2026.218564
Self-citationSun, Y., Liu, S., Helmholz, H., Liang, S., Will, O., Wiese, B., Nolte, L., Mohamad, F. H., Luczak, M., Tolnai, D., et al. (2026) · Journal of Magnesium and Alloys · doi:10.1016/j.jma.2026.102338
Spatiotemporal surface engineering of biodegradable magnesium for adaptive tissue repair
Qiang, W., & Lei, B. (2026) · Chemical Engineering Journal · doi:10.1016/j.cej.2026.182789
Microbial Influence on Magnesium Alloy Corrosion: Mechanisms and Challenges in Biomedical Implants
Alansy, A. S., Xiaoting, S., Wang, Q., & Wang, W. (2026) · Biomedical Materials & Devices · doi:10.1007/s44174-026-00760-8
- Authors
- Wang, Z., Liu, B., Yin, B., Zheng, Y., Tian, Y., & Wen, P.
- Affiliations
- Peking University Third Hospital (CN)
- Tsinghua University (CN)
- Peking University (CN)
- Corresponding author
- Tian, Yun
- Wen, Peng
- Venue
- Frontiers in Chemistry
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2022-11-29
- Volume
- 10
- Pages
- 1066103-1066103
- ISSN
- 2296-2646 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC9745192
- OpenAlex
- W4310208911
- Cited by
- 30
- References
- 149
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 4
- FWCI
- 1.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Frontiers in Chemistry (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- National Natural Science Foundation of China (Z181100001718195 2018YFE0104200 82172065 51875310 52175274)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Biomaterials › Magnesium Alloys: Properties and Applications
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Additive Manufacturing Materials and Processes
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Bone Tissue Engineering Materials
- Keywords
- magnesium alloys, biodegradable implants, bone defect repair, additive manufacturing, laser powder bed fusion, degradation control, mechanical properties, osteoconductivity, orthopedic implants, biodegradation mechanisms, patient-specific implants
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