Coping With Constraints: Achieving Effective Conservation With Limited Resources
Open accessAbstract
Conservation resources have become increasingly limited and, along with social, cultural and political complexities, this shortfall frequently challenges effectiveness in conservation. Because conservation can be costly, efforts are often only initiated after a species has declined below a critical threshold and/or when statutory protection is mandated. However, implementing conservation proactively, rather than reactively, is predicted to be less costly and to decrease a species' risk of extinction. Despite these benefits, I document that the number of studies that have implemented proactive conservation around the world are far fewer than those that simply acknowledge the need for such action. I provide examples of proactive actions that can ameliorate shortfalls in funding and other assets, thus helping conservation practitioners and managers cope with the constraints that resource limitation imposes. Not all of these options are new; however, the timing of their implementation is critical for effective conservation, and the need for more proactive conservation is increasingly recognized. These actions are (1) strengthening and diversifying stakeholder involvement in conservation projects; (2) complementing time-consuming and labor-intensive demographic studies with alternative approaches of detecting declines and estimating extinction risk; and (3) minimizing future costly conservation and management by proactively keeping common species common. These approaches may not constitute a cure-all for every conservation crisis. However, given escalating rates of species' losses, perhaps a reminder that these proactive actions can reduce conservation costs, save time, and potentially thwart population declines is warranted.
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All zoos worldwide face the common denominator of effective management of sustainable captive populations with often significant resource constraints.
“the common denominator that all zoos worldwide face is the effective management of sustainable captive populations with often significant resource constraints [72].”
From Tiger colour morphs in zoos raise conservation and welfare concerns (2026) · cites this paper as [72]
The Introduction (page unavailable) says that limited funding and other resources constrain effective conservation, and the Conclusions (page unavailable) likewise discuss conservation budget shortfalls. The paper does not establish that all zoos worldwide face these constraints or frame their shared task as managing sustainable captive populations; its discussion of captive breeding concerns particular species in crisis. (LLM, conf=0.86)
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Breton, T. D. L., Zimmer, H. C., Gallagher, R. V., Cox, M., Allen, S. P., & Auld, T. D. (2019) · Biodiversity and Conservation · doi:10.1007/s10531-019-01697-9 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Improving engagement in managing reintroduction conflicts: learning from beaver reintroduction
Auster, R., Barr, S., & Brazier, R. (2020) · Journal of Environmental Planning and Management · doi:10.1080/09640568.2020.1837089 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Knysna Estuary health: ecological status, threats and options for the future
Claassens, L., Barnes, R. S. K., Wasserman, J., Lamberth, S. J., Miranda, N., Niekerk, L. V., & Adams, J. B. (2020) · African Journal of Aquatic Science · doi:10.2989/16085914.2019.1672518 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Using density surface models to estimate spatio‐temporal changes in population densities and trend
Camp, R. J., Miller, D. L., Thomas, L., Buckland, S. T., & Kendall, S. (2020) · Ecography · doi:10.1111/ecog.04859 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Assessing the extinction risk of insular, understudied marine species
Thomas, E. A., Böhm, M., Pollock, C. M., Chen, C., Seddon, M. B., & Sigwart, J. D. (2021) · Conservation Biology · doi:10.1111/cobi.13854 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Boudreau, M. R., Gantchoff, M. G., Ramirez‐Reyes, C., Conlee, L., Belant, J. L., & Iglay, R. B. (2021) · Journal of Applied Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2664.14090 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Lopez, J. W., DuBose, T. P., Franzen, A. J., Atkinson, C. L., & Vaughn, C. C. (2022) · Aquatic Conservation Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems · doi:10.1002/aqc.3884 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Soteropoulos, D. L., Bellis, C. D., & Witsell, T. (2021) · Diversity · doi:10.3390/d13060255 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
de Oliveira, A. D., Nunes, A., Oliveira, M. A., Rodrigues, R. G., & Branquinho, C. (2022) · Frontiers in Plant Science · doi:10.3389/fpls.2022.923219 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Evolution of research on global amphibian declines
Crawford‐Ash, J., Evans, M. J., Carvalho, T., Rowley, J. J. L., Garner, T. W. J., Muths, E., & Scheele, B. C. (2025) · Conservation Biology · doi:10.1111/cobi.70146 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Bibliometric analysis of studies on threat assessment and prioritization of species for conservation
Wani, Z. A., Pant, S., Bhat, J. A., Tariq, M., Siddiqui, S., & Alshaharni, M. O. (2024) · Frontiers in Forests and Global Change · doi:10.3389/ffgc.2024.1374120 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
van Putten, I. E., Ison, S., Cvitanovic, C., Hobday, A. J., & Thomas, L. (2021) · Regional Studies in Marine Science · doi:10.1016/j.rsma.2021.102080 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Araia, M. G., Chirwa, P. W., & Syampungani, S. (2020) · Journal for Nature Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.jnc.2020.125919 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Hernandez, J. O., Buot, I. E., & Park, B. B. (2022) · Land · doi:10.3390/land11101645 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Ward, M., Possingham, H. P., Wintle, B. A., Woinarski, J. C. Z., Marsh, J., Chapple, D. G., Lintermans, M., Scheele, B. C., Whiterod, N. S., Hoskin, C. J., et al. (2025) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2414985122 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Qi, L., Chen, W., Li, C., Song, X., & Ge, L. (2024) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su16125158 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Kelly, A. M. (2025) · Environmental Nexus · doi:10.1016/j.enex.2025.100002 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Mashburn, B., Jhangeer-Khan, R., Bégué, A., Tatayah, V., Olsen, K. M., & Edwards, C. E. (2023) · Journal of Heredity · doi:10.1093/jhered/esad021 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Tanalgo, K. C., & Hughes, A. C. (2024) · Global Ecology and Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2024.e03396 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Manda, L., Idohou, R., Agoyi, E. E., Agbahoungba, S., Salako, K. V., Agbangla, C., Adomou, A. C., & Assogbadjo, A. E. (2025) · Frontiers in Sustainability · doi:10.3389/frsus.2025.1453170 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Santilli, S., Maggio, I. D., Ginevra, M. C., Nota, L., & Soresi, S. (2020) · Advancing inclusive and special education in the Asia-Pacific · doi:10.1007/978-981-15-4443-9_20 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Quantitative support for the benefits of proactive management for wildlife disease control
Bletz, M. C., Grant, E. H. C., & DiRenzo, G. V. (2024) · Conservation Biology · doi:10.1111/cobi.14363 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Simple Assessment of Spatio-Temporal Evolution of Salt Marshes Ecological Services
Carrasco, A. R. (2019) · Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.3389/fevo.2019.00077 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Prioritisation to prevent extinction
Wilson, K. A. (2023) · Cambridge Prisms Extinction · doi:10.1017/ext.2023.3 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Factors associated with preemptive conservation under the U.S. Endangered Species Act
Treakle, T. C., Epanchin‐Niell, R. S., & Iacona, G. D. (2023) · Conservation Biology · doi:10.1111/cobi.14104 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Mapping environmental perceptions in Romania: A mixed-methods research
Petrescu‐Mag, R. M., Ivan, A., Pantelimon, C., & Petrescu, D. C. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e40845 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Density surface and excursion sets modeling as an approach to estimating population densities
Camp, R. J., Asing, C. K., Banko, P. C., Berry, L., Brinck, K. W., Farmer, C., & Genz, A. S. (2022) · Journal of Wildlife Management · doi:10.1002/jwmg.22332 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Stojanović, D., Young, C., Troy, S. N., & Heinsohn, R. (2020) · Ecological Management & Restoration · doi:10.1111/emr.12422 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Vulnerability of endemic insular mole skinks to sea‐level rise
Koen, E. L., Barichivich, W. J., & Walls, S. C. (2024) · Conservation Science and Practice · doi:10.1111/csp2.13208 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationWasstrom, H. E., Cottell, C., Lofroth, E. C., & Larsen, K. W. (2020) · Northwestern Naturalist · doi:10.1898/1051-1733-101.3.168 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Macdonald, E. A., Macdonald, D. W., & Cushman, S. A. (2025) · Landscape Ecology · doi:10.1007/s10980-025-02182-1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Dai, B., Negishi, J. N., Fujii, K., Alam, M. K., & Jiang, Z. (2023) · NeoBiota · doi:10.3897/neobiota.85.99296 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Vulnerability of Bats in Australia to Wind Turbine Mortality: A Trait‐Based Assessment
Harris, C., & Turbill, C. (2026) · Austral Ecology · doi:10.1111/aec.70245 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Camp, R. J., Asing, C. K., Banko, P. C., Berry, L., Brinck, K. W., Farmer, C., & Genz, A. S. (2023) · Wildlife Society Bulletin · doi:10.1002/wsb.1471 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Bozzuto, C., Schmidt‐Posthaus, H., Adrian‐Kalchhauser, I., & Pisano, S. R. R. (2024) · Journal of Freshwater Ecology · doi:10.1080/02705060.2024.2405722 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A “hazard model” using risk-weighted surveillance for first detection of chronic wasting disease
Schuler, K. L., Hollingshead, N., Heerkens, S., Kelly, J. D., Hurst, J. E., Abbott, R. C., Hanley, B. J., Collins, E., & Hynes, K. P. (2025) · Preventive Veterinary Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2025.106599 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Tiger colour morphs in zoos raise conservation and welfare concerns
Erzinçlioğlu, T. S., Piaz, M. T., Chinpilas, T., Hunnestad, A. V., Godfrey, L., & Fourage, A. (2026) · Discover Animals · doi:10.1007/s44338-026-00163-5
(2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-816208-8.00022-1
Decision: Prioritisation to prevent extinction — R0/PR6
Wilson, K. A. (2022) · Cambridge Prisms Extinction · doi:10.1017/ext.2023.3.pr6
Review: Prioritisation to prevent extinction — R0/PR3
Wilson, K. A. (2022) · Cambridge Prisms Extinction · doi:10.1017/ext.2023.3.pr3
Review: Prioritisation to prevent extinction — R1/PR10
Wilson, K. A. (2022) · Cambridge Prisms Extinction · doi:10.1017/ext.2023.3.pr10
Author comment: Prioritisation to prevent extinction — R1/PR8
Wilson, K. A. (2022) · Cambridge Prisms Extinction · doi:10.1017/ext.2023.3.pr8
Decision: Prioritisation to prevent extinction — R1/PR13
Wilson, K. A. (2022) · Cambridge Prisms Extinction · doi:10.1017/ext.2023.3.pr13
Review: Prioritisation to prevent extinction — R1/PR11
Wilson, K. A. (2022) · Cambridge Prisms Extinction · doi:10.1017/ext.2023.3.pr11
Recommendation: Prioritisation to prevent extinction — R0/PR5
Wilson, K. A. (2022) · Cambridge Prisms Extinction · doi:10.1017/ext.2023.3.pr5
Recommendation: Prioritisation to prevent extinction — R1/PR12
Wilson, K. A. (2023) · Cambridge Prisms Extinction · doi:10.1017/ext.2023.3.pr12
Decision: Prioritisation to prevent extinction — R1/PR14
Wilson, K. A. (2023) · Cambridge Prisms Extinction · doi:10.1017/ext.2023.3.pr14
Review: Prioritisation to prevent extinction — R1/PR9
Wilson, K. A. (2022) · Cambridge Prisms Extinction · doi:10.1017/ext.2023.3.pr9
Decision: Prioritisation to prevent extinction — R0/PR7
Wilson, K. A. (2022) · Cambridge Prisms Extinction · doi:10.1017/ext.2023.3.pr7
Review: Prioritisation to prevent extinction — R0/PR4
Wilson, K. A. (2022) · Cambridge Prisms Extinction · doi:10.1017/ext.2023.3.pr4
Author comment: Prioritisation to prevent extinction — R0/PR1
Wilson, K. A. (2022) · Cambridge Prisms Extinction · doi:10.1017/ext.2023.3.pr1
Review: Prioritisation to prevent extinction — R0/PR2
Wilson, K. A. (2022) · Cambridge Prisms Extinction · doi:10.1017/ext.2023.3.pr2
Bozzuto, C., Schmidt‐Posthaus, H., Adrian‐Kalchhauser, I., & Pisano, S. R. R. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.07.31.606058
Bilby, J., Martin, J. S., Arbon, K., Baring, R. J., Clayton, J., & Clive, L. F. R. (2025) · Wildlife Research · doi:10.1071/wr24159
Analysis of Biomorphs in the Teleorman County of Romania
Popa, M. M. C., & Rusănescu, C. O. (2025) · Plants · doi:10.3390/plants14132056
(2023) · CSIRO Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1071/9781486314935.bk08025_part1
Exploring management strategies for open‐country birds: A case study from a rice‐dominated landscape
Angkaew, R., Tantipisanuh, N., Ngoprasert, D., Powell, L. A., Limparungpatthanakij, W., Round, P. D., & Gale, G. A. (2025) · Ecosphere · doi:10.1002/ecs2.70499
Wangyal, J. T., Thinley, P., Vernes, K., & Bower, D. S. (2026) · Asian Herpetological Research · doi:10.3724/ahr.2095-0357.2025.0003
Sintu, S. S., & Pharoah, R. (2026) · Jàmbá Journal of Disaster Risk Studies · doi:10.4102/jamba.v18i1.2017
Platzgummer, V., Favoretto, F., & Aburto‐Oropeza, O. (2026) · Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment · doi:10.1002/fee.70041
Using A.I. to Build Capacity and Mobilize Resources Among Conservation Nonprofit Organizations
Kang, Y., & Yang, K. C. C. (2026) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/407415
Community Perspectives on Natural Resource Values in Liuwa Plain National Park, Western Zambia
Musenge, D. C., Phiri, D., Namukonde, N., Zulu, D., Mabo, L., Mwitwa, J., & Nyirenda, V. R. (2026) · Conservation · doi:10.3390/conservation6040125
Sherman, J., Lober, C., Thoma, D., Tercek, M. T., Bockus, D. B., & Munson, S. M. (2026) · Ecological Solutions and Evidence · doi:10.1002/2688-8319.70336
- Authors
- Walls, S. C.
- Affiliations
- U.S. Geological Survey, Wetland and Aquatic Research Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Walls, Susan C.
- ORCID
- Walls, Susan C.
- Venue
- Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2018-03-16
- Volume
- 6
- ISSN
- 2296-701X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2793023384
- Cited by
- 70
- References
- 89
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 3
- FWCI
- 7.89
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- U.S. Geological Survey
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Management, Monitoring, Policy and Law › Conservation, Ecology, Wildlife Education
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Conservation, Biodiversity, and Resource Management
- Keywords
- conservation costs, extinction risk, population decline detection, stakeholder engagement, demographic analysis, conservation funding, species management
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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