Media Device Use and Vision Disorders in the Pediatric Age: The State of the Art
Open accessAbstract
Introduction. Evidence is consistent with increased screen viewing time among children and adolescents, and anticipation at the age at which children interact with media devices. Incorrect use of technology, as well as overuse, may lead to serious consequences. This study aims to revise scientific international literature and to describe the potential eye risks correlated to screen viewing time in the pediatric age. Materials and Methods. A review of the literature was performed according to the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, using the search terms “media device” and “eye” with the filter “age 0–18”. Results. Analyzing the international literature, we found 26 articles. Pre-myopia, myopia, digital eye strain, and acute acquired comitant esotropia were listed as potential and time-related consequences associated with the incorrect use of media devices among children and adolescents. Discussion. Family education on media device exposure and potential risk for children and adolescents’ sight in case of prolonged digital/screen exposure is required. During pediatric check controls, a dialogue with families on prolonged media device use at a close distance should be undertaken. Pediatricians and ophthalmologists should consider screen viewing time in case of ocular problems.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Digital media, particularly smartphones and computers, are associated with greater myopia risk compared with television.
“Digital media, particularly smartphones and computers, are associated with a greater risk for myopia as compared with television.”
From Digital Ecosystems, Children, and Adolescents: Technical Report (2026) · cites this paper as [245]
Digital media viewing duration and distance are associated with greater myopia risk.
“Digital media viewing duration and distance are associated with greater risk for myopia.245”
From Digital Ecosystems, Children, and Adolescents: Technical Report (2026) · cites this paper as [245]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Hill, D., Ameenuddin, N., Chassiakos, Y. R., Cross, C., Hutchinson, J. W., Levine, A. E., Boyd, R. W., Mendelson, R. A., Moreno, M. A., & Swanson, W. S. (2016) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2016-2591 · Cited by 1,604 · see citing works
Electronic media use and sleep in school-aged children and adolescents: A review
Cain, N., & Gradisar, M. (2010) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2010.02.006 · Cited by 1,376 · see citing works
Flitcroft, I., He, M., Jonas, J. B., Jong, M., Naidoo, K. S., Ohno‐Matsui, K., Rahi, J. S., Resnikoff, S., Vitale, S., & Yannuzzi, L. A. (2019) · Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science · doi:10.1167/iovs.18-25957 · Cited by 1,148 · see citing works
Exposure and use of mobile media devices by young children
Kabali, H. K., Irigoyen, M. M., Nunez-Davis, R., Budacki, J. G., Mohanty, S. H., Leister, K. P., & Bonner, R. L. (2015) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.2015-2151 · Cited by 1,053 · see citing works
Screen time use in children under 3 years old: a systematic review of correlates
Duch, H., Fisher, E. M., Ensari, I., & Harrington, A. (2013) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/1479-5868-10-102 · Cited by 434 · see citing works
Time outdoors and the prevention of myopia
French, A. N., Ashby, R. S., Morgan, I. G., & Rose, K. A. (2013) · Experimental Eye Research · doi:10.1016/j.exer.2013.04.018 · Cited by 395 · see citing works
Digital Screen Time During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Risk for a Further Myopia Boom?
Wong, C. W., Tsai, A. S. H., Jonas, J. B., Ohno‐Matsui, K., Chen, J., Ang, M., & Ting, D. S. W. (2020) · American Journal of Ophthalmology · doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2020.07.034 · Cited by 377 · see citing works
Moon, J. H., Kim, K. W., & Moon, N. J. (2016) · BMC Ophthalmology · doi:10.1186/s12886-016-0364-4 · Cited by 292 · see citing works
Mohan, A., Sen, P., Shah, C., Jain, E., & Jain, S. (2020) · Indian Journal of Ophthalmology · doi:10.4103/ijo.ijo_2535_20 · Cited by 282 · see citing works
Association between digital smart device use and myopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Foreman, J., Salim, A. T., Praveen, A., Fonseka, D., Ting, D. S. W., He, M., Bourne, R., Crowston, J. G., Wong, T. Y., & Dirani, M. (2021) · The Lancet Digital Health · doi:10.1016/s2589-7500(21)00135-7 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
Light Exposure and Eye Growth in Childhood
Read, S. A., Collins, M. J., & Vincent, S. J. (2015) · Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science · doi:10.1167/iovs.14-15978 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
Saxena, R., Vashist, P., Tandon, R., Pandey, R. M., Bhardawaj, A., Menon, V., & Kalaivani, M. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0117349 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
Association between digital smart device use and myopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Foreman, J., Salim, A. T., Praveen, A., Fonseka, D., Ting, D. S. W., He, M., Bourne, R., Crowston, J. G., Wong, T. Y., & Dirani, M. (2021) · Anglia Ruskin Research Online (Anglia Ruskin University) · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Early Childhood Electronic Media Use as a Predictor of Poorer Well-being
Hinkley, T., Verbestel, V., Ahrens, W., Lissner, L., Molnár, D., Moreno, L. A., Pigeot, I., Pohlabeln, H., Reisch, L. A., Russo, P., et al. (2014) · Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2014.94 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Acute acquired comitant esotropia related to excessive Smartphone use
Lee, H. S., Park, S. W., & Heo, H. (2016) · BMC Ophthalmology · doi:10.1186/s12886-016-0213-5 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
How does spending time outdoors protect against myopia? A review
Lingham, G., Mackey, D., Lucas, R., & Yazar, S. (2019) · British Journal of Ophthalmology · doi:10.1136/bjophthalmol-2019-314675 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
The impact of computer use on myopia development in childhood: The Generation R study
Enthoven, C. A., Tideman, J. W. L., Polling, J. R., Yang‐Huang, J., Raat, H., & Klaver, C. C. W. (2020) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2020.105988 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Association between Exposure to Smartphones and Ocular Health in Adolescents
Kim, J., Hwang, Y., Kang, S., Kim, M., Kim, T., Kim, J., Seo, J., Ahn, H.-J., Yoon, S., Yun, J. P., et al. (2016) · Ophthalmic Epidemiology · doi:10.3109/09286586.2015.1136652 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Media devices in pre-school children: the recommendations of the Italian pediatric society
Bozzola, E., Spina, G., Ruggiero, M., Memo, L., Agostiniani, R., Bozzola, M., Corsello, G., & Villani, A. (2018) · The Italian Journal of Pediatrics/Italian journal of pediatrics · doi:10.1186/s13052-018-0508-7 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Self-citationSmartphone use as a possible risk factor for myopia
Mccrann, S., Loughman, J., Butler, J. S., Paudel, N., & Flitcroft, D. I. (2021) · Clinical and Experimental Optometry · doi:10.1111/cxo.13092 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Hansen, M. H., Laigaard, P. P., Olsen, E. M., Skovgaard, A. M., Larsen, M., Kessel, L., & Munch, I. C. (2019) · Acta Ophthalmologica · doi:10.1111/aos.14242 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Risk factors associated with myopia in schoolchildren in Ireland
Harrington, S. C., Stack, J., & O’Dwyer, V. (2019) · British Journal of Ophthalmology · doi:10.1136/bjophthalmol-2018-313325 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Guan, H., Yu, N. N., Wang, H., Boswell, M. J., Shi, Y., Rozelle, S., & Congdon, N. G. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0215827 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Wang, W., Zhu, L., Zheng, S., Ji, Y., Xiang, Y., Lv, B., Xiong, L., Li, Z., Yi, S., Huang, H., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2021.646770 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Barber, S., Kelly, B., Collings, P. J., Nagy, L., Bywater, T. J., & Wright, J. (2017) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/s12966-017-0541-8 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Comparison of Myopic Progression before, during, and after COVID-19 Lockdown
Chang, P., Zhang, B., Lin, L., Chen, R., Chen, S., Zhao, Y., & Qu, J. (2021) · Ophthalmology · doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2021.03.029 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Prevalence of Myopia and Associated Risk Factors in Schoolchildren in North India
Singh, N. K., James, R. M., Yadav, A., Kumar, R., Asthana, S., & Labani, S. (2019) · Optometry and Vision Science · doi:10.1097/opx.0000000000001344 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Associations Between Screen Exposure in Early Life and Myopia amongst Chinese Preschoolers
Yang, G.-Y., Huang, L.-H., Schmid, K. L., Li, C.-G., Chen, J.-Y., He, G.-H., Liu, L., Ruan, Z., & Chen, W. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17031056 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Ji, L., Li, B., Sun, Y., Chen, Q. Y., & Dang, J. (2021) · Frontiers in Pediatrics · doi:10.3389/fped.2021.662984 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Liu, S., Ye, S., Wei, X., & Zhang, X. (2019) · Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics · doi:10.1111/opo.12620 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Impact of COVID-19 Home Confinement in Children’s Refractive Errors
Alvarez-Peregrina, C. C., Martínez-Pérez, C., Villa-Collar, C. C., Vázquez, C. A., Ruiz‐Pomeda, A., & Sánchez‐Tena, M. Á. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18105347 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Media Use during Adolescence: The Recommendations of the Italian Pediatric Society
Bozzola, E., Spina, G., Ruggiero, M., Vecchio, D., Caruso, C., Bozzola, M., Staiano, A. M., Agostiniani, R., Del Vecchio, A., Banderali, G., et al. (2019) · Italian Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1186/s13052-019-0725-8 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Self-citationToumbourou, J., Williams, I. R., Letcher, P., Sanson, A., & Smart, D. (2011) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1742-9536.2011.00023.x · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Terasaki, H., Yamashita, T., Yoshihara, N., Kii, Y., & Sakamoto, T. (2017) · BMC Ophthalmology · doi:10.1186/s12886-017-0519-y · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Video Game Vision Syndrome: A New Clinical Picture in Children?
Rechichi, C., Mojà, G. D., & Aragona, P. (2017) · Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology & Strabismus · doi:10.3928/01913913-20170510-01 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Mohan, A., Sen, P., Mujumdar, D., Shah, C., & Jain, E. (2021) · Strabismus · doi:10.1080/09273972.2021.1948072 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Protective effects of increased outdoor time against myopia: a review
Zhang, J., & Deng, G. (2019) · Journal of International Medical Research · doi:10.1177/0300060519893866 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Mohan, A., Sen, P., Shah, C., Datt, K., & Jain, E. (2021) · Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology & Strabismus · doi:10.3928/01913913-20210217-02 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Exploration of the associations of touch-screen tablet computer usage and musculoskeletal discomfort
Chiang, H.-Y. A., & Liu, C. (2016) · Work · doi:10.3233/wor-162274 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Jain, S., Shrivastava, S., Mathur, A., Pathak, D., & Pathak, A. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20043449 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Harrington, S. C., & O’Dwyer, V. (2023) · Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics · doi:10.1111/opo.13116 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Bhattacharya, S., Heidler, P., Saleem, S. M., & Marzo, R. R. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.945082 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Battagliola, E. T., Mangiantini, P., D’Andrea, M., Malvasi, M., Loffredo, L., Scalinci, S. Z., Comberiati, A. M., Migliorini, R., & Pacella, E. (2022) · European Journal of Ophthalmology · doi:10.1177/11206721221106135 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Digital Ecosystems, Children, and Adolescents: Technical Report
Munzer, T., Milkovich, L. M., Madigan, S., Tomopoulos, S., Parga-Belinkie, J., Ajumobi, T., Cross, C., Gerwin, R., Council on Communications and Media, Radesky, J., et al. (2026) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.2025-075321 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Digital Exposure in Early Childhood: Health Risks and Protective Strategies During Remote Learning
Єлізарова, О. Т., Stankevych, T. V., Парац, А., Yelizarov, V., Puzanovа, О. G., Lebedynets, N., & Hozak, S. V. (2025) · INQUIRY The Journal of Health Care Organization Provision and Financing · doi:10.1177/00469580251390766 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Digital Addiction: Epidemiology, Pathophysiology and Management Strategies
Sancı, G. T. (2025) · ODÜ Tıp Dergisi · doi:10.56941/odutip.1834254
Bangade, A., Puri, C., Chouragade, G., Ingole, R., Moharle, D., & Mahalle, V. (2026) · International Conference on Machine Learning and Autonomous Systems (ICMLAS) · doi:10.1109/icmlas67792.2026.11483977
López, I. F. (2026) · Highlights of ophthalmology. · doi:10.5005/hos-10101-54304
López, I. F. (2026) · Highlights of ophthalmology. · doi:10.5005/hoe-10101-54304
Mylona, I., & Floros, G. (2026) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2026.1942125
Padmapriya, N., Chandrasekaran, M., Khan, S. A., Nishika, R., Huiyun, G. L., Chong, D., Sanabria, A. S., Raeside, R., Holly, L., Chia, A., et al. (2026) · EClinicalMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2026.104225
Digital health technologies for myopia care: a systematic review
Haofei, X., He, L., Pan, Z., & Lu, X. (2026) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2026.1939923
- Authors
- Bozzola, E., Irrera, M., Hellmann, R., Crugliano, S., & Fortunato, M.
- Affiliations
- Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital (IT)
- Saint Camillus International University of Health and Medical Sciences (IT)
- Azienda Socio Sanitaria Territoriale della Valle Olona (IT)
- Association Internationale pour l’Enfance et la Réhabilitation Visuelle, 75016 Paris, France
- Corresponding author
- Bozzola, Elena
- Venue
- Children
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2024-11-20
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 1408
- ISSN
- 2227-9067 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC11592449
- OpenAlex
- W4404594813
- Cited by
- 8
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 2
- FWCI
- 0.70
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Children (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Italian Ministry of Health
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Ergonomics and Musculoskeletal Disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Ophthalmology and Visual Impairment Studies
- Social Sciences › Education › Child Development and Digital Technology
- Keywords
- screen time, visual disturbances, myopia, computer vision syndrome, acute acquired comitant esotropia, adolescents, pediatric eye health, family education
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
