The Iconic Philippine Coral Reef at Steinhart Aquarium: The Husbandry, Welfare, Behavior, and Veterinary Care Considerations of a Large Multi-Taxa Living Coral Reef System

May combine two claims.

There is potential for negative behaviors to develop from animals when diver feeds occur, as fish will quickly associate divers with food and swarm them as soon as they enter the water.

“there is potential for negative behaviors to develop from animals when these types of feeds occur, as fish will quickly associate divers with food and swarm them as soon as they enter the water [16].”

• cites [16] Prinz, 2020, To feed or not to feed? Coral reef fish responses to artificial feeding and stakeholder perceptions in the Aitutaki Lagoo, Cook Islands, Front. Mar. Sci. sourcePartly supported

  The ‘Carnivorous and Omnivorous Fish Were Consistently Attracted to Bread’ section reports that bread feeding congregated predatory fish in a feeding frenzy and describes some species as habituated to bread. It does not establish that fish associate divers themselves with food or swarm them as soon as they enter the water; the reported congregation occurred around the bread during feeding. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Corals have a rich endolithic community, and together, they are known as the coral holobiont.

“Corals have a rich endolithic community, and together, they are known as the coral holobiont [1,10,11].”

• Also stated in: § 3. Results and Discussion · plain

  “Corals have a rich endolithic community, and together, they are known as the coral holobiont [1,10,11].”

• cites [1] Lewbart, G.A. (2022). Invertebrate Medicine, Wiley Blackwell. [3rd ed.]. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [10] Krol, 2023, Milbemycin oxime (Interceptor) treatment of pycnogonid sea spider infestation in three species of corals, J. Zoo Wildl. Med. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [11] Rowher, 2002, Diversity and distribution of coral-associated bacteria, Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. sourcePartly supported

  Figure 5 in “Coral microbiotas and disease” describes the coral holobiont as the coral animal, zooxanthellae, and prokaryotes, and says it also includes endolithic algae. The Introduction describes diverse coral-associated prokaryotes, but the cited passages do not establish that corals have a rich specifically endolithic community. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The City and County of San Francisco makes seasonal changes to the sources for their primary water supply, with seasonal shifts in alkalinity from as low as 0.25-0.3 mEq/L in summer to as high as 1.0-1.2 mEq/L in winter.

“The City and County of San Francisco makes seasonal changes to the sources for their primary water supply, with seasonal shifts in alkalinity from as low as 0.25-0.3mEq/L in the summer to as high as 1.0-1.2mEq/L in the winter.”

May combine two claims.

Signs of ailment such as bleaching were seen in corals throughout the tank, and focal death of corals occurred in areas of the PCR where the sun entered the circular skylights.

“Signs of ailment such as bleaching (the expulsion of the symbiotic algae) was seen in corals throughout the tank, and focal death of corals occurred in areas of the PCR where the sun entered the circular skylights.”

May combine two claims.

Steinhart Aquarium has had success treating its aquatic invertebrates with aggressive therapy, such as daily antibiotic baths, and with simple nutraceutical approaches, such as Revive Coral Cleaner or Reef Primer dips for 10 min.

“Steinhart Aquarium has had success treating its aquatic invertebrates both with aggressive therapy, such as via daily antibiotic baths, but also with simple nutraceutical approaches, such as Revive Coral Cleaner (Two Little Fishies Inc., Miami Gardens, FL, U.S.A.) or Reef Primer (Polylab, Montreal, QC, Canada) dips for 10 min.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Abrupt changes in animal behavior can occur.

“Abrupt changes in animal behavior can occur.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Interplay between husbandry, veterinary, behavioral, and welfare considerations occurs daily for the PCR.

“Interplay between husbandry, veterinary, behavioral, and welfare considerations occurs daily for the PCR.”

May combine two claims.

In late 2022, a new BJS outbreak occurred in the PCR, and previous methods of interference proved unsuccessful.

“in late 2022, with a new BJS outbreak in the PCR and previous methods of interference proving unsuccessful”

May combine two claims.

The quality of the incoming natural seawater was variable, with low salinity and high orthophosphate (PO4 3-) concentrations.

“However, the quality of the incoming water was variable, with low salinity and high orthophosphate (PO 4 3-) concentrations.”

May combine two claims.

One species of coral, Echinopora, was almost extirpated from the PCR habitat due to BJS during a 2020 outbreak, but this species has since been reestablished.

“One species of coral-Echinopora-was almost extirpated from the habitat due to BJS during a 2020 outbreak, but this species has since been reestablished.”

The quote only partly states this claim.

After increasing the rate of PO4 3- removal to bring levels to 0.2 mg/L (targeting <0.15 mg/L), the incidence of disease in the PCR declined significantly.

“After this change was made, the incidence of disease declined significantly.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Philippine Coral Reef habitat contains over 100 genera of invertebrates, including 84 genera of corals, and over 700 fish representing 53 genera.

“The habitat boasts over 100 genera of invertebrates, including 84 genera of corals.There are also over 700 fish representing 53 genera.”

May combine two claims.

A 30-day bioassay of the new saltwater with an existing coral reef exhibit showed no toxic contaminants, no deficiency in desired ions, no interference from trace elements, and the living coral reef community thrived.

“Lastly, once a salt formulation was chosen and the chemicals sourced, a basic bioassay was conducted over 30 days utilizing the new saltwater and an existing coral reef exhibit.This way, the aquarium was able to ensure that there were no toxic contaminants, no deficiency in desired ions, and no interference from trace elements-and the living coral reef community thrived.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The naturally planktivorous pyramid butterflyfish (Hemitaurichthys polylepis) in the PCR suddenly began to eat soft corals after 8 years in the system.

“For example, the naturally planktivorous pyramid butterflyfish (Hemitaurichthys polylepis) in the PCR suddenly began to eat soft corals after 8 years in the system.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

For nearly 100 years, Steinhart Aquarium relied on natural seawater from a sub-sand Ranney collector at Ocean Beach in San Francisco.

“For nearly 100 years, Steinhart Aquarium relied on a source of natural seawater from a sub-sand Ranney collector located at the nearby Ocean Beach in San Francisco.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Philippine Coral Reef tank is 25 feet (7.6 m) deep and contains 212,000 gallons (802,507 L; 800 m3) of seawater.

“The tank is 25 feet (7.6 m) deep and contains 212,000 gallons (802,507 L; 800 m 3 ) of seawater.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

For corals, an increasing surface area of bleaching is a useful welfare descriptor, while a decreasing body condition score is not.

“For example, a decreasing body condition score is not a useful descriptor for an ailing coral, while an increasing surface area of bleaching is.”

May combine two claims.

The PCR houses 22 species of surgeonfish chosen specifically for the functional trophic groups they fall into, each of which make critical contributions to ecosystem processes through macroalgal removal, affecting sediment dynamics, and other functions.

“For example, the PCR houses 22 species of surgeonfish (Family: Acanthuridae), which were chosen specifically for the functional trophic groups they fall into, each of which make critical contributions to the ecosystem processes through macroalgal removal, affecting sediment dynamics, and other functions [9].”

• cites [9] Tebbett, 2022, The functional roles of surgeonfishes on coral reefs: Past, present and future, Rev. Fish Biol. Fish. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

When welfare assessments indicate criteria that need improvement, processes are in place to address these.

“When welfare assessments indicate criteria that need improvement, processes are in place to address these.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Canary wrasse (Halichoeres chrysus) are utilized to depopulate dwarf brittlestars (Amphipholis spp.).

“Canary wrasse (Halichoeres chrysus) are utilized to depopulate dwarf brittlestars (Amphipholis spp.).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

As the aquarium adds fauna to the collection in the PCR, the veterinary team has become even more involved in the health management of this habitat.

“As the aquarium adds fauna to the collection in the PCR, the veterinary team has become even more involved in the health management of this habitat.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In cases of worsening welfare scores, often due to geriatric status or chronic medical conditions, animals are assessed more frequently via a separate Quality of Life Assessment.

“In cases of worsening welfare scores, often due to geriatric status or chronic medical conditions, animals are assessed more frequently via a separate Quality of Life Assessment.”

May combine two claims.

In the PCR, BJS outbreaks sometimes resolved spontaneously in some areas, but new outbreaks continued.

“although resolution would spontaneously occur in some areas, new outbreaks of BJS continued.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The PCR houses several species of eye-catching schooling fish chosen not only for beauty or to mimic a living reef ecosystem but also because they are of appropriate size and number to perform schooling behavior in this particular size tank.

“The PCR also houses several species of eye-catching schooling fish (e.g., blue and gold fusiliers, Caesio caerulaurea), which have been chosen not only for their beauty or to further mimic a living reef ecosystem but also because they are of appropriate size and number to perform this schooling behavior in this particular size tank.”

May combine two claims.

The light spectrum varies by location and depth in the PCR, and some coral colonies have been seen to thrive at the extremes of PAR measurements.

“However, the spectrum varies based on location and depth in the tank, and some coral colonies have been seen to thrive at the extremes of measurements.”

May combine two claims.

After a translucent light film was applied to cover the building skylights that directly impacted the PCR, cutting out 80% of the light, improvement in coral appearance was seen shortly thereafter.

“Lastly, a translucent light film was applied to cover the building skylights that directly impacted the PCR, cutting out 80% of the light.Improvement in coral appearance was seen shortly thereafter, and over the next few years, the vertical glass walls on the west side of the habitat were also covered with this material.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The PCR tank has a history of pycnogonid sea spider presence.

“The PCR tank has a history of pycnogonid sea spider presence”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There has been a history of fish causing damage to fingers in aquaria, including in the old Steinhart Aquarium facility.

“there has been a history of this in aquaria, including in the old Steinhart Aquarium facility (B.Shepherd, pers.comm.).”

• cites B.Shepherd, pers.comm.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Aquatic animal medicine, specifically that of invertebrates and fish, is in its infancy; medical resources are limited, and knowledge of drug pharmacokinetics, mechanisms of action, and dosing are not well established.

“Compared to companion animal medicine, aquatic animal medicine-specifically that of invertebrates and fish-is in its infancy.Medical resources for these types of animals are limited, and although therapeutic options are available, knowledge of drug pharmacokinetics, mechanisms of action, and dosing are still not well established [1,6].”

• cites [1] Lewbart, G.A. (2022). Invertebrate Medicine, Wiley Blackwell. [3rd ed.]. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [6] Hadfield, C., and Clayton, L. (2021). Clinical Guide to Fish Medicine, Wiley Blackwell. [1st ed.]. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Steinhart Aquarium's welfare program is structured in accordance with the AZA Animal Welfare Committee definition of welfare.

“The welfare program at the aquarium is structured in accordance with the AZA Animal Welfare Committee definition of welfare [7].”

• cites [7] AZA (2023, July 18). Animal Welfare Committee. Available online: www.aza.org/animal_welfare_committee.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

All exhibit inhabitants undergo standardized animal welfare assessments overseen by a team of biologists, curators, and veterinarians at the aquarium.

“All exhibit inhabitants undergo standardized animal welfare assessments that are overseen by a team of biologists, curators, and veterinarians at the aquarium.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Bacterial, fungal, or ciliate overgrowth as a cause of coral illness can be diagnosed via a simple skin scrape of tissue and microscopic analysis.

“Bacterial, fungal, or ciliate overgrowth as a cause of coral illness can be diagnosed via a simple skin scrape of tissue and microscopic analysis [1,10].”

• Also stated in: § 3. Results and Discussion · plain

  “Bacterial, fungal, or ciliate overgrowth as a cause of coral illness can be diagnosed via a simple skin scrape of tissue and microscopic analysis [1,10].”

• cites [1] Lewbart, G.A. (2022). Invertebrate Medicine, Wiley Blackwell. [3rd ed.]. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [10] Krol, 2023, Milbemycin oxime (Interceptor) treatment of pycnogonid sea spider infestation in three species of corals, J. Zoo Wildl. Med. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

For animals that cannot be hospitalized, medical interference is limited but on-exhibit treatment can still be pursued.

“For these animals, medical interference is limited but on-exhibit treatment can still be pursued.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Often, several changes must be instituted to arrest a suspected disease process.

“Often, several changes must be instituted to arrest a suspected disease process.”

May combine two claims.

Ill-animal biopsies can identify pathogens causing malaise, while shifts from the normal endolithic makeup can be indicative of the health of the colony, sometimes irrespective of gross appearance.

“Ill-animal biopsies can identify pathogens causing malaise, while shifts from the normal endolithic makeup can be indicative of the health of the colony, sometimes irrespective of gross appearance [10].”

• cites [10] Krol, 2023, Milbemycin oxime (Interceptor) treatment of pycnogonid sea spider infestation in three species of corals, J. Zoo Wildl. Med. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

PAR is measured at varying intervals throughout the year, with the frequency of measurement increased if major husbandry changes or poor animal health are noted.

“PAR is measured at varying intervals throughout the year, with the frequency of measurement being increased if major husbandry changes, such as lighting alterations, are made or poor animal health is noted.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Coral reefs support more species per unit area than any other marine environment.

“While this biodiversity varies globally, it has been estimated that coral reefs support more species per unit area than any other marine environment [2].”

• cites [2] Delbeek, J.C., and Sprung, J.F. (2005). The Reef Aquarium: Science, Art and Technology, Ricordea Publishing. [1st ed.].Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Abiotic factors such as lighting, water flow, and water chemistry can act synergistically, and changes to more than one need to be made in order to cause positive change.

“Abiotic factors such as lighting, water flow, and water chemistry can act synergistically, and changes to more than one need to be made in order to cause positive change.”

May combine two claims.

Aquaria housing corals require proper water chemistry and proper water flow rate and type of motion.

“Aquaria housing corals require not only the proper water chemistry but the proper water flow rate and type of motion [5].”

• cites [5] Spotte, S. (1973). Marine Aquarium Keeping: The Science, Animals, and Art, John Wiley & Sons. [1st ed.].Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Repeated photographs of sectors of the exhibit or particular animals allow for more consistent monitoring of the progression or improvement of subjects.

“Repeated photographs of sectors of the exhibit or particular animals allow for more consistent monitoring of the progression or improvement of subjects (Figure 2).”

May combine two claims.

Sixline wrasse (Pseudocheilinus hexataenia) feeds on Pyramidellidae snails that are pests of Tridacnidae clams, and tail spot wrasse (Halichoeres melanurus) feeds on acoel flatworms.

“such as the sixline wrasse (Pseudocheilinus hexataenia), which feeds on Pyramidellidae snails that are pests of Tridacnidae clams, and tail spot wrasse (Halichoeres melanurus) that feed on acoel flatworms [2].”

• cites [2] Delbeek, J.C., and Sprung, J.F. (2005). The Reef Aquarium: Science, Art and Technology, Ricordea Publishing. [1st ed.].Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Animal welfare refers to animals' collective physical, mental, and emotional states over a period of time, and it is measured on a continuum ranging from good to poor.

“In general, animal welfare refers to animals' collective physical, mental, and emotional states over a period of time, and it is measured on a continuum ranging from good to poor [7].”

• cites [7] AZA (2023, July 18). Animal Welfare Committee. Available online: www.aza.org/animal_welfare_committee.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The existing natural seawater infrastructure was not sustainable for the long-term supply of seawater to the aquarium, and two years after the PCR debut, Steinhart switched to synthetic seawater.

“Ultimately, it was decided that the existing infrastructure was not sustainable for the long-term supply of seawater to the aquarium, and two years after the debut of the PCR, the decision to switch from natural seawater to synthetic seawater was made.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The aquarium now implements a rigorous protocol of analyzing every bag of salt that arrives, with unacceptable bags being returned to the manufacturer for exchange.

“Now, the aquarium implements a rigorous protocol of analyzing every bag of salt that arrives, with unacceptable bags being returned to the manufacturer for exchange.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Incoming water is regularly tested, and the salt formulation is adjusted frequently to account for seasonal alkalinity changes.

“Incoming water has to be regularly tested, and the salt formulation is adjusted frequently in order to account for these changes.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Successfully replicating a coral reef habitat in human care necessitates accounting for the physical needs of the species involved, not only for their health but also so that they have the opportunity to carry out their natural behaviors.

“Successfully replicating such a habitat in human care necessitates accounting for the physical needs of the species involved, not only for their health but also so that they have the opportunity to carry out their natural behaviors.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

The interplay of husbandry factors, animal behaviors, and health management contributes to a positive welfare experience and the vibrant growth of all tank animals, leading to the aquarium's excellent, aesthetically pleasing appearance.

“Ultimately, the interplay of husbandry factors, animal behaviors, and health management contributes to a positive welfare experience and the vibrant growth of all tank animals, leading to the aquarium's excellent, aesthetically pleasing appearance (Figure 6).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Not all positive outcomes can be linked to any one particular change, and sometimes several simultaneous alterations are required before improvement is noted.

“Aquarium teams should consider that not all positive outcomes can be linked to any one particular change and that, sometimes, several simultaneous alterations are required before improvement is noted.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Because of the interplay between the living and nonliving parts of a captive aquarium system, it is important to assess these parameters for aquariums of any size.

“However, because of the interplay between the living and nonliving parts of a captive aquarium system, it is important to assess these parameters for aquariums of any size.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Despite the complicated husbandry and species considerations for aquatic animals, these recommendations and standards can be incorporated by public aquariums.

“Despite the complicated husbandry and species considerations for aquatic animals, these recommendations and standards can be incorporated by public aquariums.”