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Cited by 847Photodynamic Therapy Research StudiesPorphyrin and Phthalocyanine ChemistryNanoplatforms for cancer theranostics

Dye Sensitizers for Photodynamic Therapy

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Ormond, Alexandra, Freeman, Harold·2013·Materials
DOI 10.3390/ma6030817PMC PMC5512801
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Abstract

Photofrin® was first approved in the 1990s as a sensitizer for use in treating cancer via photodynamic therapy (PDT). Since then a wide variety of dye sensitizers have been developed and a few have been approved for PDT treatment of skin and organ cancers and skin diseases such as acne vulgaris. Porphyrinoid derivatives and precursors have been the most successful in producing requisite singlet oxygen, with Photofrin® still remaining the most efficient sensitizer (quantum yield = 0.89) and having broad food and drug administration (FDA) approval for treatment of multiple cancer types. Other porphyrinoid compounds that have received approval from US FDA and regulatory authorities in other countries include benzoporphyrin derivative monoacid ring A (BPD-MA), meta-tetra(hydroxyphenyl)chlorin (m-THPC), N-aspartyl chlorin e6 (NPe6), and precursors to endogenous protoporphyrin IX (PpIX): 1,5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA), methyl aminolevulinate (MAL), hexaminolevulinate (HAL). Although no non-porphyrin sensitizer has been approved for PDT applications, a small number of anthraquinone, phenothiazine, xanthene, cyanine, and curcuminoid sensitizers are under consideration and some are being evaluated in clinical trials. This review focuses on the nature of PDT, dye sensitizers that have been approved for use in PDT, and compounds that have entered or completed clinical trials as PDT sensitizers.

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  • Many dyes, pigments, and aromatic hydrocarbons are effective photosensitizers because these molecules may reach a long-lived triplet state in high quantum yield.

    “Many dyes, for example methylene blue, rose Bengal and eosin, pigments, for example chlorophyll, hematoporphyrin and flavins, and aromatic hydrocarbons are effective photosensitizers because these molecules may reach a long-lived triplet state in high quantum yield”

    From Skin protection from solar ultraviolet radiation using natural compounds: a review (2024) · cites this paper as Ormond and Freeman 2013

    The Introduction (§1.1; page not provided) explains that a photosensitizer can enter a longer-lived triplet state, and §2.4 identifies methylene blue and rose Bengal as sensitizers. The cited paper does not establish a high quantum yield for reaching that triplet state across the listed molecules; its reported quantum yields concern singlet oxygen. The searched passages also do not substantiate the claim about eosin, flavins, or aromatic hydrocarbons. (LLM, conf=0.85)

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References 79 · Cited by 847

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Authors
Ormond, A., & Freeman, H.
Affiliations
North Carolina State University (US)
Corresponding author
Ormond, Alexandra
ORCID
Venue
Materials
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2013-03-06
Volume
6
Issue
3
Pages
817-840
ISSN
1996-1944 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/ma6030817
PMC
PMC5512801
OpenAlex
W2157812356
Cited by
847
References
79
Citations by year
2026: 27 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 48 · 2023: 71 · 2022: 85 · 2021: 93 · 2020: 83 · 2019: 94 · 2018: 107 · 2017: 71 · 2016: 48 · 2015: 42 · 2014: 33 · 2013: 7
FWCI
6.73
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Materials (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
North Carolina State University
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Pulmonary and Respiratory Medicine › Photodynamic Therapy Research Studies
  • Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Materials Chemistry › Porphyrin and Phthalocyanine Chemistry
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Nanoplatforms for cancer theranostics
Keywords
photodynamic therapy, dye sensitizers, porphyrinoids, Photofrin, singlet oxygen, cancer therapy, acne, mTHPC, NPe6, 5-aminolevulinic acid, clinical trials

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