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Cited by 374Bacterial biofilms and quorum sensingWastewater Treatment and Nitrogen RemovalPolysaccharides Composition and Applications

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 96 of the 96 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

EPS—Then and Now

Open access
Flemming, Hans-Curt·2016·Microorganisms
DOI 10.3390/microorganisms4040041PMC PMC5192524
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Abstract

“Slime” played a brief and spectacular role in the 19th century founded by the theory of primordial slime by Ernst Haeckel. However, that substance was never found and eventually abandoned. Further scientific attention slowly began in the 1930s referring to slime as a microbial product and then was inspired by “How bacteria stick” by Costerton et al. in 1978, and the matrix material was considered to be polysaccharides. Later, it turned out that proteins, nucleic acids and lipids were major other constituents of the extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), an acronym which was highly discussed. The role of the EPS matrix turns out to be fundamental for biofilms, in terms of keeping cells in proximity and allowing for extended interaction, resource capture, mechanical strength and other properties, which emerge from the life of biofilm organisms, including enhanced tolerance to antimicrobials and other stress. The EPS components are extremely complex and dynamic and fulfil many functional roles, turning biofilms into the most ubiquitous and successful form of life on Earth.

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Crossref · 10.3390/microorganisms4040041

Cites

96 of 96 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

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Figures

Figure 1 Bathybius Haeckelii. Figure 1 on Table 17 in Ernst Haeckels Article, Beiträge zur Plastidentheorie (1870) (Image in public domain).
Figure 1 Bathybius Haeckelii. Figure 1 on Table 17 in Ernst Haeckels Article, Beiträge zur Plastidentheorie (1870) (Image in public domain).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 2 Resource caption and retention by and in biofilms. The biofilm is a sponge-like system that provides surfaces for the sorption of a diverse range of molecules that can be sequestered from the environment. This confers several benefits to the biofilm, such as nutrient acquisition and matrix stabilization. Similarly, the physicochemical properties of the matrix enable biofilms to retain and stabilize extracellular digestive enzymes produced by biofilm cells, turning the matrix into an external digestive system. Surface-attached biofilms are not only able to take up nutrients from the water phase but can also digest biodegradable components from the substratum, which is exposed to enzymes in the matrix (after [19], with permission).
Figure 2 Resource caption and retention by and in biofilms. The biofilm is a sponge-like system that provides surfaces for the sorption of a diverse range of molecules that can be sequestered from the environment. This confers several benefits to the biofilm, such as nutrient acquisition and matrix stabilization. Similarly, the physicochemical properties of the matrix enable biofilms to retain and stabilize extracellular digestive enzymes produced by biofilm cells, turning the matrix into an external digestive system. Surface-attached biofilms are not only able to take up nutrients from the water phase but can also digest biodegradable components from the substratum, which is exposed to enzymes in the matrix (after [19], with permission).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 3 Fluorescent staining of a biofilm. Colour allocation: Nucleic acid stain (SybrGreen) = green; lectin stain (AAL-Alexa568) = red; autofluorescence of algae (chlorophyll A) = blue; autofluoresence of cyanobacteria = purple/white. Image dimensions: 246 × 246 μm (from [34], with permission, source: [35]).
Figure 3 Fluorescent staining of a biofilm. Colour allocation: Nucleic acid stain (SybrGreen) = green; lectin stain (AAL-Alexa568) = red; autofluorescence of algae (chlorophyll A) = blue; autofluoresence of cyanobacteria = purple/white. Image dimensions: 246 × 246 μm (from [34], with permission, source: [35]).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 4 Properties of biofilms emerging from life in the EPS matrix (after [19], with permission).
Figure 4 Properties of biofilms emerging from life in the EPS matrix (after [19], with permission).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 5 Control of biofilm formation by c-di-Guanidinemonophosphate (c-di-GMP). Concentration of c-di-GMP is regulated by DGC (Diguanylate cyclase; GGDEF domain: diguanylate cyclase), PDE 1 (Phosphodiesterase; EAL domain: diguanylate phosphodiesterase, linearizes c-di-GMP to 5′-pGpG), PDE (nonspecific cellular PDEs, further degrading 5′-pGpG to GMP), and PDE 2 (Phosphodiesterase; HD-GYP domain, metal dependent, unrelated to the EAL domain, linearizes c-di-GMP to 5′-pGpG, degrades 5′-pGpG further to GMP). pGpG—5′ phosphoguanylyl(3′,5′)guanosine; GMP—Guanosine-5-phosphate (from Krauss, G.-J., Nies, D. (Eds.): Ecological Biochemistry-Environmental and Interspecies Interactions today, VCH Weinheim, 2014, with permission).
Figure 5 Control of biofilm formation by c-di-Guanidinemonophosphate (c-di-GMP). Concentration of c-di-GMP is regulated by DGC (Diguanylate cyclase; GGDEF domain: diguanylate cyclase), PDE 1 (Phosphodiesterase; EAL domain: diguanylate phosphodiesterase, linearizes c-di-GMP to 5′-pGpG), PDE (nonspecific cellular PDEs, further degrading 5′-pGpG to GMP), and PDE 2 (Phosphodiesterase; HD-GYP domain, metal dependent, unrelated to the EAL domain, linearizes c-di-GMP to 5′-pGpG, degrades 5′-pGpG further to GMP). pGpG—5′ phosphoguanylyl(3′,5′)guanosine; GMP—Guanosine-5-phosphate (from Krauss, G.-J., Nies, D. (Eds.): Ecological Biochemistry-Environmental and Interspecies Interactions today, VCH Weinheim, 2014, with permission).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 6 The dammned polymer matrix (J.C. Bryers, Univ. Washington, with permission).
Figure 6 The dammned polymer matrix (J.C. Bryers, Univ. Washington, with permission).CC BY · PubMed Central

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Citations

Cites

Research works printed but not linked: 10

  1. Geesey, 1982, Microbial exopolymers: Ecological and economic considerations, ASM News, 48, 9
  2. Characklis, W.G., and Wilderer, P.A. (1989). Structure and Function of Biofilms, Wiley-Blackwell.
  3. Wingender, J., Neu, T.R., and Flemming, H.C. (1999). Microbial Extracellular Polymeric Substances, Springer. · DOI
  4. Wingender, J., Neu, T., and Flemming, H.-C. (1999). Microbial Extracellular Polymeric Substances, Springer. · DOI
  5. Flemming, H.-C., Neu, T.R., and Wingender, J. (2016). The Perfect Slime: Microbial Extracellular Polymeric Substances (EPS), IWA publishing. · DOI
  6. Moran, A., Brenan, P., Holst, O., and von Itzstein, M. (2009). Microbial Glycobiology: Structures, Relevance and Applications, Elsevier.
  7. Flemming, H.-C., Wingender, J., and Neu, T.R. (2016). The Perfect Slime—Microbial Extracellular Substances, IWA Publishing. · DOI
  8. Flemming, H.-C., Wingender, J., and Neu, T. (2016). The Perfect Slime—Microbial Extracellular Polymeric Substances, IWA Publishing. · DOI
  9. Flemming, H.-C., Neu, T.R., and Wingender, J. (2016). The Perfect Slime: Microbial Extracellular Polymeric Substances, Springer. · DOI
  10. Flemming, H.-C., Wingender, J., and Neu, T.R. (2016). The Perfect Slime—Microbial Extracellular Substances, IWA Publishing. · DOI

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Metadata

Authors
Flemming, H.-C.
Affiliations
Nanyang Technological University (SG)
Corresponding author
Flemming, Hans-Curt
ORCID
Flemming, Hans-Curt
Venue
Microorganisms
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2016-11-18
Volume
4
Issue
4
Pages
41
ISSN
2076-2607 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/microorganisms4040041
PMC
PMC5192524
OpenAlex
W2557171271
Cited by
374
References
96
Citations by year
2026: 31 · 2025: 49 · 2024: 55 · 2023: 38 · 2022: 50 · 2021: 35 · 2020: 52 · 2019: 32 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 12
FWCI
1.93
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Microorganisms (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Bacterial biofilms and quorum sensing
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Wastewater Treatment and Nitrogen Removal
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Polysaccharides Composition and Applications
Keywords
extracellular polymeric substances, slime, biofilm, biofilm matrix, polysaccharides, extracellular proteins, extracellular nucleic acids, extracellular lipids, antimicrobial tolerance, Ernst Haeckel

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