Astronomy and Calendrical Science in Early Mikkyō in Japan: Challenges and Adaptations

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The Vairocanābhisambodhi clearly states that naksatras must be considered.

“The Vairocanābhisam .bodhi also clearly states that naks .atras must be considered.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

Amoghavajra and Kūkai were aware of this model, but nobody in either Chinese or Japanese Buddhism ever attempted to implement it.

“Amoghavajra and K ūkai were certainly aware of this model, but nobody in either Chinese or Japanese Buddhism ever attempted to implement it, as far as I am aware”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The extant Chinese and Japanese Buddhist corpus is sufficiently complete that the absence of evidence of attempts to implement Indian models indicates that no such attempts were made.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The depictions display nothing conceivably connected to Vedic deities.

“The depictions display nothing conceivably connected to Vedic deities.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Hino'o kuketsu addresses the problems of intercalary months and short months, neither of which are discussed in the Xiuyao jing.

“The explanations address two problems: those of intercalary months and short months, neither of which are discussed in the Xiuyao jing”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The Chinese calendar and system of astronomy were implemented wholesale in Japan early on.

“the Chinese calendar and system of astronomy were implemented wholesale in Japan early on”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Japanese side did not necessarily always favor the Chinese definition, and in some instances, the Indian number is cited.

“The Japanese side did not necessarily always favor the Chinese definition, and in some instances, the Indian number is cited.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

Mao/Subaru shows six stars, which correspond to the classical Indian number.

“Mao/Subaru shows six stars, which correspond to the classical Indian number.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

This way of timing specific rituals-a form of electional astrology-is unprecedented in earlier Buddhist literature.

“This way of timing specific rituals-a form of electional astrology-is unprecedented in the earlier Buddhist literature”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The Qiyao xingchen bie xingfa is an illustrated manual that documents spirits who affect people on specific days of the month.

“This is an illustrated manual that documents spirits who affect people on specific days of the month.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

The seven-day week was implemented in Mikkyō in a way no different from elsewhere in Eurasia, but used purely as a religious rather than civil way of reckoning time.

“the seven-day week, which was implemented in Mikky ō in a way no different from elsewhere in Eurasia, although it was used purely as a religious rather than civil way of reckoning the passage of time”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Mikkyō used Chinese models, atop which was overlain Indian lore.

“Mikky ō used Chinese models, atop which was overlain Indian lore”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Technical works on Indian astronomy, such as the Navagraha-karana, were never brought to Japan and were also not widely studied in China.

“Technical works on Indian astronomy, such as the Navagraha-karan .a, were never brought to Japan (they were also not widely studied in China).”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

The text explicitly states that the naksatras are different from what is used in China and provides illustrations.

“The text explicitly states that the naks .atras are different from what is used in China and provides illustrations:”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The spirits in T.1309, apart from a few, are all associated with lunar stations, but these depictions, primarily anthropomorphic and zoomorphic, are unlike anything seen in contemporary Indic or Chinese sources.

“The spirits, apart from a few, are all associated with lunar stations, but these depictions, primarily anthropomorphic and zoomorphic, are unlike anything seen in contemporary Indic or Chinese sources (Figure 3).”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The manuscript of the Xiuyao jing from 1322 held at Dōshisha University reproduces the illustrations of asterisms.

“Unlike the typeset editions of the Xiuyao jing, the manuscript of the Xiuyao jing from 1322, held at D ōshisha University (148.8|F9632),reproduces the illustrations of asterisms.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Not all Indian astronomical and calendrical concepts were implemented by the Buddhist community in China or Japan; instead they functioned as canonical lore without practical implementation.

“Not all of these concepts, however, were implemented by the Buddhist community in China, let alone in Japan; instead, they functioned as a kind of canonical lore, albeit without any practical implementation”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Kara zu for Mao/Subaru displays seven stars, the Chinese number, alongside a bodhisattva or Buddha-like figure.

“For example, the famous Kara zu 火羅圖 (Hora Diagram) for Mao/Subaru displays seven stars (the Chinese number) alongside a bodhisattva or Buddha-like figure (Figure 2).”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The figures of the zodiac signs (e.g., Sagittarius as a satyr bowman or Aries as a ram) were available as illustrations, but the constellations associated with them were unknown.

“the figures of the zodiac signs (e.g., Sagittarius as a satyr bowman or Aries as a ram) were available as illustrations, but the constellations associated with them were unknown.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

In China, legal codes and impracticalities of converting between Indian and Chinese systems existed.

“the circumstances were different in China, where legal codes and even just the impracticalities of converting between Indian and Chinese systems existed.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Astronomy and astrology were available to the saṃgha in India.

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

Chinese calendrical science and observational astronomy were introduced to Japan.

“while Chinese calendrical science and observational astronomy were introduced to Japan”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The practice of astronomy changed considerably within Japanese Buddhism with the advent of Sukuyōdō, a community of astrologer-monks that lasted until the late 14th century.

“The practice of astronomy changed considerably within Japanese Buddhism with the advent of Sukuy ōd ō 宿曜道, a community of astrologer-monks that lasted until the late 14th century”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The seven-day week could be and in fact was implemented in Mikkyō.

“The seven-day week, in contrast, could be and in fact was implemented in Mikky ō”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The zodiac signs were employed in a nominal way in Mikkyō, but they were not defined in any precise way.

“The zodiac signs were similarly employed in a nominal way, but they were not defined in any precise way”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Other texts available to monks in Japan offered no more clarity on the matter.

“Other texts available to monks in Japan offered no more clarity on the matter.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

This model is completely different from the earlier model described in the Śārdūlakarṇāvadāna and reflects a later reformulation of the astrometric parameters for measuring the stars in India.

“This is completely different from the earlier model described in the Śārd ūlakarn .āvadāna and reflects a later reformulation of the astrometric parameters for measuring the stars in India”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Mikkyō possessed variable illustrations of asterisms, but there was not an evident grasp on the canonical Indian asterisms linked to the naksatras.

“In any case, we can see that Mikky ō possessed variable illustrations of asterisms, but there was not an evident grasp on the canonical Indian asterisms linked to the naks .atras.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Wamyō ruiju shō reads that the Xiuyao jing states that the asterism Subaru is six stars and of the fire god Agni.

“In contrast, the Wamyō ruiju shō (maki 1, p. 3) reads”

• cites Wamyō ruiju shōNot checked yet

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Shingon and Tendai inherited a Sinicized system of Indian astrology from their respective beginnings.

“Shingon and Tendai inherited a Sinicized system of Indian astrology from their respective beginnings”

• Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · boosted

  “although astrology was clearly a component of Mikky ō both in Shingon and Taimitsu from their respective beginnings”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The depicted anthropomorphic figures in T. 1309 are anomalous and require a brief explanation.

“The depicted anthropomorphic figures in T. 1309 are also anomalous and require a brief explanation.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

Elite members of the Chinese samgha in the capital might have been able to directly consult with Indian astronomers about these matters in detail, but the Japanese samgha did not have this opportunity.

“The elite members of the Chinese sam .gha in the capital might have been able to directly consult with Indian astronomers about these matters in detail, but the Japanese sam .gha did not have this opportunity.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The spirits in T.1309 are jinn (djinn) based on their visual representations, often with bestial and zoomorphic features, and the fact that nails are used to bind them.

“I believe these spirits are jinn (djinn) based on their visual representations, often with bestial and zoomorphic features, and the fact that nails are used to bind them.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

The jinn are especially afraid of iron, and anyone who manages to insert an iron needle in their bodies or clothes gains control of them.

“Omidsalar (2000) explains that”

• cites Omidsalar (2000)Not checked yet

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.

Japanese students of astronomy as part of the Kentōshi would have studied astronomy, the Chinese rather than Indian system, under the supervision of the state.

“Japanese students of astronomy as part of the Kentōshi 遣唐使 (”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Unauthorized study of astronomy was technically illegal according to the law codes of the Tang, although the relevant laws were enforced less and less in the later years of the dynasty.

“Another obstacle to employing astronomy was the fact that unauthorized study of this topic was technically illegal according to the law codes of the Tang, although the relevant laws were enforced less and less in the later years of the dynasty (Whitfield 1998).”

• cites Whitfield 1998Not checked yet

It may state two separate claims as one.

Astrology was both studied and technically required in Mikkyō.

“astrology was both studied and technically required in Mikky ō”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The prescriptions in scriptures and commentaries reflect what was actually required or practiced in Mikkyō, not merely theoretical ideals.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Abundant Indian astral lore came to Japan via Buddhism.

“There was, in fact, abundant Indian astral lore which came to Japan via Buddhism”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The situation changed with the introduction of Mantrayāna, in which astrology was necessary for rituals and was one necessary factor in the model of accelerated attainment of buddhahood in a single lifetime.

“The situation, however, changed entirely following the introduction of Mantrayāna (”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The prescriptions in scriptures and commentaries reflect what was actually required or practiced in Mikkyō, not merely theoretical ideals.

It may state two separate claims as one.

The system of assigning days of the lunar month to naksatras aligns easily with the East Asian calendar and in practice requires no knowledge of astronomy or observation of the Moon.

“The other system of assigning days of the lunar month to naks .atras aligns easily with the East Asian calendar and, in practice, requires no knowledge of astronomy or even observation of the Moon.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

The Vairocanābhisambodhi requires that on the morning of a propitious day, having determined a day when time, lunar mansion, and planets are in harmony, and before the morning meal, with an auspicious sign, one should create the mandala.

“On the morning of a propitious day, having determined a day on which the time, lunar mansion [naks .atra], and planets are all in harmony, and at a time before the [morning] meal, with an auspicious sign [ . . .].”

• cites T.848Not checked yet

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Comparing these sources, it is evident that the respective illustrators were drawing from various sources.

“When comparing these sources, it is evident that the respective illustrators were drawing from various sources.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The adaptations employed in Mikkyō resulted in a form of hemerology based only vaguely on the Indian calendar, which was clearly an inevitable compromise given the circumstances.

“The adaptations employed in Mikky ō resulted in a form of hemerology based only vaguely on the Indian calendar, which was clearly an inevitable compromise given the circumstances.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Nü/Śravaṇa is associated with Viṣṇu.

“Nü/Śravaṇa is associated with Viṣṇu (Yano 2003, p. 380).”

• cites Yano 2003Not checked yet

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The author(s) of the Susiddhi-kara clearly had observational astronomy in mind when their writings pointed to the prediction of eclipses.

“The author(s) of the Susiddhi-kara clearly had observational astronomy in mind when their writings pointed to the prediction of eclipses.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Adopting a new foreign system of astronomical measurements would have been impractical, even though scriptures required an orthodox model of naksatras to time rituals according to Indian astrology.

“Adopting a new foreign system of astronomical measurements would have been impractical, even though, according to scriptures, an orthodox model of the naks .atras (such as that of the navām .śas) was technically necessary in order to time rituals according to Indian astrology.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

A Mikkyō monk in the late ninth century with access to the Xiuyao jing and T. 1309 would have been looking at often dissimilar asterisms, which would have furthermore differed from canonical or official Chinese sources.

“A Mikky ō monk in the late ninth century with access to the Xiuyao jing and T. 1309 would have been looking at often dissimilar asterisms, which would have furthermore differed from”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Mao/Kṛttikā is associated with Agni in Buddhist and more broadly Indic lore.

“Mao/Kṛttikā is associated with Agni in Buddhist and more broadly Indic lore.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Mikkyō attempted to engage in the exact sciences of astronomy and calendrical computations because scriptures and inherited tradition called for this, but the end result was very different from what was employed in India.

“Mikky ō attempted to engage in the exact sciences of astronomy and calendrical computations because their scriptures and inherited tradition called for this, but the end result was something very different from what was employed in India”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Japanese monks were compelled to observe Indian astrology according to their own scriptures, which necessitated knowledge of Indian astronomy.

“Japanese monks were compelled to observe Indian astrology according to their own scriptures, which by extension necessitated knowledge of Indian astronomy”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The prescriptions in scriptures and commentaries reflect what was actually required or practiced in Mikkyō, not merely theoretical ideals.

It may state two separate claims as one.

This model was endorsed in the commentary to the Vairocanābhisambodhi, and hence Śubhakarasimha himself was also aware of it.

“This model was also endorsed in the commentary to the Vairocanābhisam .bodhi, and hence we know that Śubhakarasim .ha himself was also aware of it (T.1796, 39: p. 618a8-13).”

• cites T.1796Not checked yet

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The corresponding naksatra, Śravaṇa, is three stars in the ancient Indian texts.

“The corresponding naks .atra, Śravan .a, is three stars in the ancient Indian texts.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The Qiyao xingchen bie xingfa is nominally attributed to Yixing based on the fantastical story told in the text about him summoning down the stars.

“It is nominally attributed to Yixing based on the fantastical story told in the text about him summoning down the stars (Kotyk 2018d, pp. 23-27).”

• cites Kotyk 2018dNot checked yet

It may state two separate claims as one.

The model of assigning days to naksatras devised by Amoghavajra and his team is divorced from the precisely observed position of the Moon and would have appeared irregular from the perspective of any Indian astronomer at the time.

“the reality is that this model of assigning days to naks .atras (which was devised by Amoghavajra and his team) is actually divorced from the precisely observed position of the Moon and would have appeared irregular from the perspective of any Indian astronomer at the time”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The scriptures and orthopraxy of Mantrayāna required an understanding of astrology and, in some cases, expertise in observational astronomy.

“The scriptures and orthopraxy of Mantrayāna required an understanding of astrology and, in some cases, expertise in observational astronomy.”

• Also stated in: § 7. Conclusions · plain

  “The scriptures and orthopraxy of Mantrayāna required an understanding of astrology and, in some cases, expertise in observational astronomy.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The survey shows that Mikkyō was more of an heir to a Sinicized form of Indian astrology, which itself was a product of Amoghavajra's time.

“The survey above shows that Mikky ō was more of an heir to a Sinicized form of Indian astrology, which itself was a product of Amoghavajra's time.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Regular observation of the planets and stars was not generally required in Mikkyō, which stands in contrast to what the Indian literature advises if not requires.

“Regular observation of the planets and stars was not generally required in Mikkyō, which stands in contrast to what the Indian literature advises if not requires.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Amoghavajra had to create an authoritative manual with which the local saṃgha could time rituals according to Indian conventions.

“Amoghavajra had to create an authoritative manual with which the local sam .gha could time rituals according to Indian conventions.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The result was certainly functional.

“The result was certainly functional”

Probably not a substantial claim.

The situation became even more complex for Japanese monks who had to operate using borrowed Chinese models and only a handful of resources.

“The situation became even more complex for Japanese monks who had to operate using borrowed Chinese models and only a handful of resources.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The reason exact identification was not undertaken may be that this information was not available.

“perhaps because this information was not available.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The seven-day week, with each day associated with a planet, clearly became an important element within Mikkyō, but in reality, this is not strictly connected to astronomy.

“The seven-day week, with each day associated with a planet, clearly became an important element within Mikky ō, but we must point out that, in reality, this is not strictly connected to astronomy.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The available data shows that early Mikkyō monks were aware of astrology, and it was taken into consideration.

“Still, the available data shows that early Mikkyō monks were aware of astrology, and it was taken into consideration.”

• Also stated in: § 7. Conclusions · plain

  “Still, the available data shows that early Mikky ō monks were aware of astrology, and it was taken into consideration.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

These Indian materials were arguably unimportant to earlier types of Buddhism, at least as far as attainment of bodhi or advancement along the bodhisattva path were concerned.

“Although these were arguably unimportant to earlier types of Buddhism (at least as far as the attainment of bodhi or advancement along the bodhisattva path were concerned)”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

This fact is not widely recognized in scholarship on Mikkyō.

“This fact is not widely recognized in scholarship on Mikky ō.”