CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 137Aquatic Ecosystems and Phytoplankton DynamicsMycotoxins in Agriculture and FoodMarine Toxins and Detection Methods

Detection of Cyanotoxins in Algae Dietary Supplements

Open access
Roy-Lachapelle, Audrey, Solliec, Morgan, Bouchard, Maryse, Sauvé, Sébastien·2017·Toxins
DOI 10.3390/toxins9030076PMC PMC5371831
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

Algae dietary supplements are marketed worldwide as natural health products. Although their proprieties have been claimed as beneficial to improve overall health, there have been several previous reports of contamination by cyanotoxins. These products generally contain non-toxic cyanobacteria, but the methods of cultivation in natural waters without appropriate quality controls allow contamination by toxin producer species present in the natural environment. In this study, we investigated the presence of total microcystins, seven individual microcystins (RR, YR, LR, LA, LY, LW, LF), anatoxin-a, dihydroanatoxin-a, epoxyanatoxin-a, cylindrospermopsin, saxitoxin, and β-methylamino-l-alanine in 18 different commercially available products containing Spirulina or Aphanizomenon flos-aquae. Total microcystins analysis was accomplished using a Lemieux oxidation and a chemical derivatization using dansyl chloride was needed for the simultaneous analysis of cylindrospermopsin, saxitoxin, and β-methylamino-l-alanine. Moreover, the use of laser diode thermal desorption (LDTD) and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) both coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) enabled high performance detection and quantitation. Out of the 18 products analyzed, 8 contained some cyanotoxins at levels exceeding the tolerable daily intake values. The presence of cyanotoxins in these algal dietary supplements reinforces the need for a better quality control as well as consumer’s awareness on the potential risks associated with the consumption of these supplements.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/toxins9030076

Cites

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Contamination level is higher in open pond systems than in closed bioreactors.

    “the level of contamination is higher in the open pond system than it is in the closed bioreactors”

    From Tendencies Affecting the Growth and Cultivation of Genus Spirulina: An Investigative Review on Current Trends (2022) · cites this paper as [11]

    The Introduction says cultivation in natural waters can allow contamination by toxin-producing species, and Results and Discussion §2.2 reports fewer cyanotoxins in Spirulina-based than in A. flos-aquae-based supplements. The paper does not identify those products as coming from open ponds or closed bioreactors, or directly compare contamination levels between those systems (searched: open pond, closed bioreactors, bioreactor). (LLM, conf=0.75)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Out of 14 spirulina dietary supplements, 3 had microcystins.

    “Roy-Lachapelle et al. [11] also demonstrated that out of the 14 different kinds of spirulina dietary supplements, 3 of them had microcystins.”

    From Tendencies Affecting the Growth and Cultivation of Genus Spirulina: An Investigative Review on Current Trends (2022) · cites this paper as Roy-Lachapelle et al. [11]

  • Consuming 10-19 g of spirulina per day, and up to 40 g in Africa, over an extended period did not result in adverse effects for consumers.

    “According to the research of Roy-Lachapelle et al. [11], consuming 10–19 g of spirulina per day, and even up to 40 g in Africa, over an extended period of time did not result in any adverse effects for consumers.”

    From Tendencies Affecting the Growth and Cultivation of Genus Spirulina: An Investigative Review on Current Trends (2022) · cites this paper as Roy-Lachapelle et al. [11]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Cites

No references could be resolved yet.

Research works printed but not linked: 63

  1. [1]Merel S. Walker D. Chicana R. Snyder S. Baures E. Thomas O. State of knowledge and concerns on cyanobacterial blooms and cyanotoxins Environ. Int. 2013 59 303 327 10.1016/j.envint.2013.06.013 23892224 · DOI
  2. [2]Paerl H.W. Otten T.G. Harmful cyanobacterial blooms: Causes, consequences, and controls Microb. Ecol. 2013 65 995 1010 10.1007/s00248-012-0159-y 23314096 · DOI
  3. [3]Van Apeldoorn M.E. Van Egmond H.P. Speijers G.J. Bakker G.J. Toxins of cyanobacteria Mol. Nutr. Food. Res. 2007 51 7 60 10.1002/mnfr.200600185 17195276 · DOI
  4. [4]Paerl H.W. Paul V.J. Climate change: Links to global expansion of harmful cyanobacteria Water Res. 2012 46 1349 1363 10.1016/j.watres.2011.08.002 21893330 · DOI
  5. [5]O’neil J. Davis T.W. Burford M.A. Gobler C. The rise of harmful cyanobacteria blooms: The potential roles of eutrophication and climate change Harmful Algae 2012 14 313 334 10.1016/j.hal.2011.10.027 · DOI · Paper page
  6. [6]Oliver R.L. Hamilton D.P. Brookes J.D. Ganf G.G. Physiology, blooms and prediction of planktonic cyanobacteria Ecology of Cyanobacteria II Whitton B.A. Springer Dordrecht, The Netherland 2012 155 194
  7. [7]Persson P.B. Zakrisson A. Dietary supplements: Health from the ocean? Acta Physiol. 2015 215 10.1111/apha.12594 26333065 · DOI
  8. [8]Ku C.S. Yang Y. Park Y. Lee J. Health benefits of blue-green algae: Prevention of cardiovascular disease and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease J. Med. Food 2013 16 103 111 10.1089/jmf.2012.2468 23402636 PMC3576896 · DOI
  9. [9]Hoseini S. Khosravi-Darani K. Mozafari M. Nutritional and medical applications of Spirulina microalgae Mini Rev. Med. Chem. 2013 13 1231 1237 10.2174/1389557511313080009 23544470 · DOI · Paper page
  10. [11]Saker M.L. Welker M. Vasconcelos V.M. Multiplex pcr for the detection of toxigenic cyanobacteria in dietary supplements produced for human consumption Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2007 73 1136 1142 10.1007/s00253-006-0565-5 17001477 · DOI
  11. [12]Vichi S. Lavorini P. Funari E. Scardala S. Testai E. Contamination by Microcystis and microcystins of blue–green algae food supplements (bgas) on the italian market and possible risk for the exposed population Food Chem. Toxicol. 2012 50 4493 4499 10.1016/j.fct.2012.09.029 23036452 · DOI
  12. [13]Rellán S. Osswald J. Saker M. Gago-Martinez A. Vasconcelos V. First detection of anatoxin-a in human and animal dietary supplements containing cyanobacteria Food Chem. Toxicol. 2009 47 2189 2195 10.1016/j.fct.2009.06.004 19520132 · DOI
  13. [14]Ballot A. Krienitz L. Kotut K. Wiegand C. Metcalf J.S. Codd G.A. Pflugmacher S. Cyanobacteria and cyanobacterial toxins in three alkaline rift valley lakes of Kenya-lakes Bogoria, Nakuru and Elmenteita J. Plankton Res. 2004 26 925 935 10.1093/plankt/fbh084 · DOI
  14. [15]Petroczi A. Taylor G. Naughton D. Mission impossible? Regulatory and enforcement issues to ensure safety of dietary supplements Food Chem. Toxicol. 2011 49 393 402 10.1016/j.fct.2010.11.014 21087651 · DOI
  15. [16]Dietrich D. Hoeger S. Guidance values for microcystins in water and cyanobacterial supplement products (blue-green algal supplements): A reasonable or misguided approach? Toxicol. Appl. Pharm. 2005 203 273 289 10.1016/j.taap.2004.09.005 15737681 · DOI
  16. [17]Draisci R. Ferretti E. Palleschi L. Marchiafava C. Identification of anatoxins in blue-green algae food supplements using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry Food Addit. Contam. 2001 18 525 531 10.1080/02652030118558 11407751 · DOI
  17. [18]Lawrence J.F. Menard C. Determination of microcystins in blue-green algae, fish and water using liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection after sample clean-up employing immunoaffinity chromatography J. Chromatogr. A 2001 922 111 117 10.1016/S0021-9673(01)00924-4 11486855 · DOI
  18. [19]Gilroy D.J. Kauffman K.W. Hall R.A. Huang X. Chu F.S. Assessing potential health risks from microcystin toxins in blue-green algae dietary supplements Environ. Health Perspect. 2000 108 435 439 10.1289/ehp.00108435 10811570 PMC1638057 · DOI
  19. [21]Cox P.A. Banack S.A. Murch S.J. Rasmussen U. Tien G. Bidigare R.R. Metcalf J.S. Morrison L.F. Codd G.A. Bergman B. Diverse taxa of cyanobacteria produce β-n-methylamino-l-alanine, a neurotoxic amino acid Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2005 102 5074 5078 10.1073/pnas.0501526102 15809446 PMC555964 · DOI
  20. [22]Rapala J. Sivonen K. Luukkainen R. Niemelä S.I. Anatoxin-a concentration in anabaena and aphanizomenon under different environmental conditions and comparison of growth by toxic and non-toxic anabaena-strains—A laboratory study J. Appl. Phycol. 1993 5 581 591 10.1007/BF02184637 · DOI
  21. [23]Sivonen K. Niemelä S. Niemi R. Lepistö L. Luoma T. Räsänen L. Toxic cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) in finnish fresh and coastal waters Hydrobiologia 1990 190 267 275 10.1007/BF00008195 · DOI
  22. [24]Scott P.M. Niedzwiadek B. Rawn D.F.K. Lau B.P.Y. Liquid chromatographic determination of the cyanobacterial toxin β-N-methylamino-l-alanine in algae food supplements, freshwater fish, and bottled water J. Food Prot. 2009 72 1769 1773 10.4315/0362-028X-72.8.1769 19722418 · DOI
  23. [25]Glover W. Baker T.C. Murch S.J. Determination of β-N-methylamino-l-alanine, N-(2-aminoethyl) glycine, and 2, 4-diaminobutyric acid in food products containing cyanobacteria by ultra-performance liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry: Single-laboratory validation J. Aoac. Int. 2015 98 1559 1565 10.5740/jaoacint.15-084 26651568 · DOI
  24. [26]Dietrich D.R. Fischer A. Michel C. Hoeger S.J. Toxin mixture in cyanobacterial blooms—A critical comparison of reality with current procedures employed in human health risk assessment Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 2008 619 885 912 18461795
  25. [27]Roy-Lachapelle A. Solliec M. Sinotte M. Deblois C. Sauvé S. High resolution/accurate mass (HRMS) detection of anatoxin-a in lake water using LDTD-APCI coupled to a Q-Exactive mass spectrometer Talanta 2015 132 836 844 10.1016/j.talanta.2014.10.021 25476385 · DOI
  26. [28]Roy-Lachapelle A. Solliec M. Sinotte M. Deblois C. Sauve S. Total analysis of microcystins in fish tissue using laser thermal desorption-atmospheric pressure chemical ionization-high-resolution mass spectrometry (LDTD-APCI-HRMS) J. Agric. Food Chem. 2015 63 7440 7449 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b02318 26211936 · DOI
  27. [29]Roy-Lachapelle A. Fayad P.B. Sinotte M. Deblois C. Sauve S. Total microcystins analysis in water using laser diode thermal desorption-atmospheric pressure chemical ionization-tandem mass spectrometry Anal. Chim. Acta 2014 820 76 83 10.1016/j.aca.2014.02.021 24745740 · DOI
  28. [30]Rinehart K.L. Harada K. Namikoshi M. Chen C. Harvis C.A. Munro M.H.G. Blunt J.W. Mulligan P.E. Beasley V.R. Dahlem A.M. Nodularin, microcystin, and the configuration of ADDA J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1988 110 8557 8558 10.1021/ja00233a049 · DOI
  29. [31]Fayad P.B. Roy-Lachapelle A. Duy S.V. Prévost M. Sauvé S. On-line solid-phase extraction coupled to liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry for the analysis of cyanotoxins in algal blooms Toxicon 2015 108 167 175 10.1016/j.toxicon.2015.10.010 26494036 · DOI
  30. [32]James K.J. Furey A. Sherlock I.R. Stack M.A. Twohig M. Caudwell F.B. Skulberg O.M. Sensitive determination of anatoxin-a, homoanatoxin-a and their degradation products by liquid chromatography with fluorimetric detection J. Chromatogr. A 1998 798 147 157 10.1016/S0021-9673(97)01207-7 9542136 · DOI
  31. [33]Roy-Lachapelle A. Solliec M. Sauve S. Determination of BMAA and three alkaloid cyanotoxins in lake water using dansyl chloride derivatization and high-resolution mass spectrometry Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2015 407 5487 5501 10.1007/s00216-015-8722-2 25935679 · DOI
  32. [34]Diener M. Erler K. Hiller S. Christian B. Luckas B. Determination of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins in dietary supplements by application of a new HPLC/FD method Eur. Food Res. Technol. 2006 224 147 151 10.1007/s00217-006-0302-4 · DOI
  33. [35]Liu H. Scott P. Determination of the cyanobacterial toxin cylindrospermopsin in algal food supplements Food Addit. Contam. 2011 28 786 790 10.1080/19440049.2010.501824 21623503 PMC3118519 · DOI
  34. [36]McCarron P. Logan A.C. Giddings S.D. Quilliam M.A. Analysis of β-N-methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA) in Spirulina-containing supplements by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry Aquat. Biosyst. 2014 10 1 7 10.1186/2046-9063-10-5 25120905 PMC4130116 · DOI
  35. [37]Suchy P. Berry J. Detection of total microcystin in fish tissues based on Lemieux oxidation and recovery of 2-methyl-3-methoxy-4-phenylbutanoic acid (MMPB) by solid-phase microextraction gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (SPME-GC/MS) Int. J. Environ. Anal. Chem. 2012 92 1443 1456 10.1080/03067319.2011.620703 23264717 PMC3526195 · DOI
  36. [38]Neffling M.R. Lance E. Meriluoto J. Detection of free and covalently bound microcystins in animal tissues by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry Environ. Pollut. 2010 158 948 952 10.1016/j.envpol.2009.10.023 19910094 · DOI
  37. [39]Kaushik R. Balasubramanian R. Methods and approaches used for detection of cyanotoxins in environmental samples: A review Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013 43 1349 1383 10.1080/10643389.2011.644224 · DOI
  38. [40]Moreira C. Ramos V. Azevedo J. Vasconcelos V. Methods to detect cyanobacteria and their toxins in the environment Appl. Microbiol. Biot. 2014 98 8073 8082 10.1007/s00253-014-5951-9 25085613 · DOI
  39. [41]Farrer D. Counter M. Hillwig R. Cude C. Health-based cyanotoxin guideline values allow for cyanotoxin-based monitoring and efficient public health response to cyanobacterial blooms Toxins 2015 7 457 477 10.3390/toxins7020457 25664510 PMC4344635 · DOI
  40. [42]Heussner A.H. Mazija L. Fastner J. Dietrich D.R. Toxin content and cytotoxicity of algal dietary supplements Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2012 265 263 271 10.1016/j.taap.2012.10.005 23064102 · DOI
  41. [43]Shimamatsu H. Mass production of spirulina, an edible microalga Asian Pacific Phycology in the 21st Century: Prospects and Challenges Springer Berlin, Germany 2004 39 44
  42. [44]Costa J.A.V. de Morais M.G. Dalcanton F. Reichert C.d.C. Durante A.J. Simultaneous cultivation of Spirulina platensis and the toxigenic cyanobacteria Microcystis aeruginosa Z Naturforsch C 2006 61 105 110 10.1515/znc-2006-1-219 16610226 · DOI
  43. [45]Cox P.A. Banack S.A. Murch S.J. Biomagnification of cyanobacterial neurotoxins and neurodegenerative disease among the chamorro people of Guam Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2003 100 13380 13383 10.1073/pnas.2235808100 14612559 PMC263822 · DOI
  44. [46]Cox P.A. Davis D.A. Mash D.C. Metcalf J.S. Banack S.A. Dietary exposure to an environmental toxin triggers neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid deposits in the brain Proc. R. Soc. B 2016 283 10.1098/rspb.2015.2397 26791617 PMC4795023 · DOI · Paper page
  45. [47]Sanchez J.A. Otero P. Alfonso A. Ramos V. Vasconcelos V. Aráoz R. Molgó J. Vieytes M.R. Botana L.M. Detection of anatoxin-a and three analogs in Anabaena spp. Cultures: New fluorescence polarization assay and toxin profile by lc-ms/ms Toxins 2014 6 402 415 10.3390/toxins6020402 24469431 PMC3942742 · DOI
  46. [48]Chan E. The role of complementary and alternative medicine in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder J. Dev. Behav. Pediatr. 2002 23 S37 S45 10.1097/00004703-200202001-00007 11875289 · DOI
  47. [49]Kapoor R. Mehta U. Supplementary effect of spirulina on hematological status of rats during pregnancy and lactation Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. 1998 52 315 324 10.1023/A:1008027408919 10426118 · DOI
  48. [50]Andersson M. Karlsson O. Banack S.A. Brandt I. Transfer of developmental neurotoxin β-N-methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA) via milk to nursed offspring: Studies by mass spectrometry and image analysis Toxicol. Lett. 2016 258 108 114 10.1016/j.toxlet.2016.06.015 27320960 · DOI
  49. [51]Dietrich D. Ernst B. Day B. Human consumer death and algal supplement consumption: A post mortem assessment of potential microcystin-intoxication via microcystin immunoistochemical (mcich) analyses Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Toxic Cyanobacteria Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 5–10 August 2007 132
  50. [52]Iwasa M. Yamamoto M. Tanaka Y. Kaito M. Adachi Y. Spirulina-associated hepatotoxicity Am. J. Gastroenterol. 2002 97 3212 3213 10.1111/j.1572-0241.2002.07145.x 12492223 · DOI
  51. [53]Funari E. Testai E. Human health risk assessment related to cyanotoxins exposure CRC Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 2008 38 97 125 10.1080/10408440701749454 18259982 · DOI
  52. [54]Carmichael W.W. Azevedo S.M. An J.S. Molica R.J. Jochimsen E.M. Lau S. Rinehart K.L. Shaw G.R. Eaglesham G.K. Human fatalities from cyanobacteria: Chemical and biological evidence for cyanotoxins Environ. Health Perspect. 2001 109 663 668 10.1289/ehp.01109663 11485863 PMC1240368 · DOI
  53. [55]Giannuzzi L. Sedan D. Echenique R. Andrinolo D. An acute case of intoxication with cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins in recreational water in Salto Grande Dam, Argentina Mar. Drugs 2011 9 2164 2175 10.3390/md9112164 22163179 PMC3229228 · DOI
  54. [56]Svirčev Z. Baltić V. Gantar M. Juković M. Stojanović D. Baltić M. Molecular aspects of microcystin-induced hepatotoxicity and hepatocarcinogenesis J. Environ. Sci. Health C 2010 28 39 59 10.1080/10590500903585382 20390967 · DOI
  55. [57]Fujiki H. Suganuma M. Carcinogenic aspects of protein phosphatase 1 and 2a inhibitors Marine Toxins as Research Tools Fusetani N. Kem W. Springer Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany 2009 19184590
  56. [59]Solliec M. Massé D. Sauvé S. Analysis of trimethoprim, lincomycin, sulfadoxin and tylosin in swine manure using laser diode thermal desorption-atmospheric pressure chemical ionization-tandem mass spectrometry Talanta 2014 128 23 30 10.1016/j.talanta.2014.04.023 25059125 · DOI
  57. [60]Lemoine P. Roy-Lachapelle A. Prévost M. Tremblay P. Solliec M. Sauvé S. Ultra-fast analysis of anatoxin-a using laser diode thermal desorption-atmospheric pressure chemical ionization-tandem mass spectrometry: Validation and resolution from phenylalanine Toxicon 2013 61 165 174 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.10.021 23159398 · DOI
  58. [61]Boisvert M. Fayad P.B. Sauvé S. Development of a new multi-residue laser diode thermal desorption atmospheric pressure chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometry method for the detection and quantification of pesticides and pharmaceuticals in wastewater samples Anal. Chim. Acta 2012 754 75 82 10.1016/j.aca.2012.09.046 23140957 · DOI
  59. [62]Viglino L. Prévost M. Sauvé S. High throughput analysis of solid-bound endocrine disruptors by LDTD-APCI-MS/MS J. Environ. Monit. 2011 13 583 590 10.1039/c0em00550a 21206945 · DOI
  60. [63]Segura P.A. Tremblay P. Picard P. Gagnon C. Sauvé S. High-throughput quantitation of seven sulfonamide residues in dairy milk using laser diode thermal desorption-negative mode atmospheric pressure chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometry J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010 58 1442 1446 10.1021/jf903362v 20078066 · DOI
  61. [64]Fayad P.B. Prévost M. Sauvé S. Laser diode thermal desorption/atmospheric pressure chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometry analysis of selected steroid hormones in wastewater: Method optimization and application Anal. Chem. 2010 82 639 645 10.1021/ac902074x 20000768 · DOI
  62. [65]Solliec M. Roy-Lachapelle A. Sauve S. Quantitative performance of liquid chromatography coupled to q-exactive high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) for the analysis of tetracyclines in a complex matrix Anal. Chim. Acta 2015 853 415 424 10.1016/j.aca.2014.10.037 25467486 · DOI
  63. [66]Fedorova G. Randak T. Lindberg R.H. Grabic R. Comparison of the quantitative performance of a q-exactive high-resolution mass spectrometer with that of a triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometer for the analysis of illicit drugs in wastewater Rapid. Commun. Mass Spectron. 2013 27 1751 1762 10.1002/rcm.6628 23821568 · DOI

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Authors
Roy-Lachapelle, A., Solliec, M., Bouchard, M., & Sauvé, S.
Affiliations
  • Department of Chemistry, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada
  • Université de Montréal (CA)
Corresponding author
Sauvé, Sébastien
ORCID
Venue
Toxins
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2017-02-25
Volume
9
Issue
3
Pages
76
ISSN
2072-6651 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/toxins9030076
PMC
PMC5371831
OpenAlex
W2594895388
Cited by
137
References
0
Citations by year
2026: 7 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 24 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 4
FWCI
7.58
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Toxins (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Aquatic Ecosystems and Phytoplankton Dynamics
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Mycotoxins in Agriculture and Food
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Marine Toxins and Detection Methods
Keywords
cyanotoxins, microcystins, anatoxin-a, cylindrospermopsin, saxitoxin, BMAA, Spirulina, Aphanizomenon flos-aquae, supplement contamination, tolerable daily intake, quality control, natural health products
MeSH terms
Adult, Bacterial Toxins, Child, Humans, Risk Assessment, Dietary Supplements, Aphanizomenon, Spirulina

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review