The Data Revolution: Big Data, Open Data, Data Infrastructures & Their Consequences

“…politics” (Balcerowicz 1995) in which, in the name of public health security, governments can roll out panoptic modes of governance based on centralized “dataveillance” (Kitchin 2014) – a move contravening the norms of state-society relations in many contexts valuing privacy and autonomy.”

“In this perspective, data-driven science is a form of abductive reasoning (Kitchin, 2014b; Miller, 2010).”

“Calls for an ‘‘ethical data science’’ (boyd and Crawford, 2012; Kitchin, 2014) have found some traction in practitioner communities (e.g. Schutt and O’Neil, 2013), and a growing community of technical researchers has pursued projects concerned with bias, fairness, and accountability (e.g. FATML:…”

“Although often framed as being ‘objective, neutral and free of bias’, data – as Rob Kitchin (2014a) argues – ‘ are not simply natural and essential elements that are abstracted from the world in neutral and objective ways’ (p. 135).”

“The ‘data revolution’ (Kitchin, 2014) is only the latest articulation of the indexical power of digital media.”

“…in the new millennium her-alded these developments as the beginning of a new era for the social sciences (e.g. Laney 2001; Lazer et al. 2009; OECD 2013; Sagiroglu and Sinanc 2013; Einav and Levin 2014; Kitchin 2014; Connelly et al. 2016; Billari and Zagheni 2017; Alburez-Gutierrez et al. 2019).”

“Transactional and other data archives have an increasingly important role here (Kitchin 2014, Maurer n.d.), insofar as they profoundly transform the nature and availability of the data that can contribute to the setting of price.”

“This ‘anticipatory governance’ model focuses on the future while extensively using past and real-time data (Kitchin, 2014).”

“Quantification is not a new phenomenon but rapidly expanding in the so-called data revolution and recent attempts towards data-intensive medicine (Kitchin, 2014).”

“Data are commonly viewed as digital objects derived through the reduction and extraction of social and cultural phenomena from observations, computations, experiments, and record keeping (Kitchin 2014).”

“…not dismiss or reject Big Data analytics, but rather employ the methodological approach of data-driven science within a different epistemological framing that enables social scientists to draw valuable insights from Big Data that are situated and reflexive’’ (Kitchin 2014a: 9–10, emphasis added).”

“…rich forms of social, cultural, economic, political, and historical data (MayerSchönberger and Cukier, 2013)—there is also concern that it is generating “an epistemological approach that enables post-positivist forms of computational social science” (Kitchin, 2014b, p. 10) and qualitative research.”

“The ever-growing availability of data, processing power and automation of processes are phenomena that have their origins in the datafication and digitalization of society (Kitchin 2014).”

“…potentials and the role of big data that are produced in the urban (or rural) fabric, the role of augmented reality, 3D visualization and agent-based modelling, artificial intelligence, software developments and digital twins (e.g., Batty, 2013; Kitchin, 2014; Kitchin et al., 2018; Komninos, 2015).”

“For instance, Kitchin (2014) emphasizes the costs of maintaining open data, which is often perceived as a key public-sector contribution in analytics partnerships.”

“In contrast to much of the hype, big data still requires researchers to interpret correlations found in the data, and as Kitchin (2014a) argued, that will not happen successfully without subject-matter experts.”

“…to the legitimate outcome of data being used and re-used (particularly when data are mishandled, manipulated or inappropriately distributed) (Kitchin, 2014), which we termed as ‘data traceability’, meaning that legal data authorisation protocols (Gope & Hwang, 2016) should be established to…”

“That is, no matter the context, the production, analysis, visualization, and interpretation of data is a fundamentally (inter-)subjective, power-laden process shaped by any number of social, cultural, political, and economic con- siderations (cf. Kitchin, 2014).”

“This conceptualization of data is distinct from the work of others (e.g. Gitelman, 2013 or Kitchin, 2014).”

“Recent years have also seen the digital ‘data revolution’ (Kitchin, 2014) extend to mainstream policing and security practice.”

“The awareness of the power of the data generated by the society brought the hope of a digital revolution (Kitchin, 2014).”

“…reserves of ‘big data’ – stores of data ‘generated continuously, seeking to be exhaustive and fine-grained in scope, and flexible in its production’ (Kitchin 2014a, 2) – presents companies with extensive opportunities to develop new, although far from perfect, insights about how to develop…”

“, Value or Veracity [9,10]), while neglecting previously mentioned dimensionalities, making a holistic semantic definition rather difficult [11,12].”

“Indeed, a core element in the sales pitch of technology fi rms is precisely the prospect that users can fl ow seamlessly through (digital) space, for example by enjoying a ‘ constant, uninterrupted mobility ’ in the so-called ‘ smart city ’ (Rose, 2017, pp.787; see also Kitchin, 2014).”

“These include things like cyberinfrastructure, eScience, eResearch, Science 2.0, Digital Humanities, Open Science or Open Research, emphasizing various aspects of the ‘data revolution’ (Kitchin 2014; Fecher and Friesike 2014).”

“…various technologies and structures in Municipality A raises critical questions about the ethical dimensions of the urban smartening: instrumenting the city creates conditions for ‘panoptic surveillance’ through an infrastructure to ‘track and trace’ individuals in the city (Kitchin, 2014a: 11).”

“As a result, it is relevant for many subfields of research, from mass communication (e.g., Newman et al., 2017; Usher, 2018), through political communication (Hopkin & Rosamond, 2018), to communication technology (Kitchin, 2014).”

“7 Among prominent contributors: Geoff Bowker (1994 and subsequent works), Paul Edwards (2010), Rob Kitchin (2014), Borgman (2015).”

“…is not new (e.g. national censuses), however, the shift from big data to Big Data (i.e. continuous, exhaustive, fine-grained and scalable as in Kitchin, 2014) has created openings for non-state actors to position themselves as critical, if not essential, to the production and circulation of…”

“Acknowledging this integral labour of repair in data science is an important step in understanding the economic, political, and cultural transformations accompanying the ‘data revolution’ (Kitchin, 2014).”

“…data through a person’s phone (passively, actively and through voluntary submission), including information about its use, location and surroundings (kitchin 2014). some of this is data is uploaded to servers, before being cleaned, processed (in some instances ano-nymised) and stored, possibly…”

“Second, it helps promote research that analyzes the role of Big Data in urban policymaking, such as its implications for ‘‘smart cities’’ (Glaeser et al., 2016; Kitchin, 2014b; Meijer and Bolı́var, 2016; Thakuriah et al., 2017; Yeh, 2017; Zook, 2017).”

“…scholarship by demonstrating that the concept of translation can be used successfully to highlight the agency, power and politics of a hitherto largely overlooked, yet increasingly influential, actor in environmental debates: environmental Big Data (Bellanova, 2017; Gabrys, 2016; Kitchin, 2014).”

“Critical scholars concerned with the increased ‘datafication’ (Kitchin, 2014) of organization often focus on the totalizing effects of ITC and governing infrastructures.”

“Dataintensive methods may also be treated as components of broader research programs in which statistical associations are subjected to further investigation (Kitchin 2014, Leonelli 2014).”

“For big data aficionados, the term for seeing concrete relations through new human-technological assemblages is ‘datafication’ (Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier, 2013; Kitchin, 2014).”

“Third, advancements in computing power and techniques like machine learning significantly enhanced real-time collection, storage, communication, integration, and analysis of vast amounts of data, leading to the big data phenomenon (Ferguson, 2017c; Kitchin, 2014).”

“The changes associated with the Internet of Things as critical infrastructure, is a paradigm shift for cities and societies in terms of the ways they are conceived, governed, regulated and managed (Kitchin 2014).”

“A large body of research has been produced by scholars of political and critical geography on the intersection between digitalization, data fi cation and space (Amin & Thrift, 2002; Castells, [1996] 2010; Kitchin, 2011, 2014; Kitchin & Dodge, 2011).”

“The social sciences acknowledge the relevance of smartphones for conducting research [56] and logs are byproduct data commonly available as part of the big data revolution [57, 58].”

“This later point emerges well in Kitchin (2014a) work on smart cities and real time as well as in Lyon’s (2018) latest work on surveillance culture.”

“Data are never strictly “ neutral, ” but are already shaped by the people, infrastructures, and instruments involved in deriving or generating them (Gitelman, 2013; Kitchin, 2014).”

“Data in particular are a key focus of smart city ambitions, because, as Kitchin (2014b) explained, they are viewed as neutral, objective, and capable of “speaking an inherent truth about social and economic relations” and are therefore “essential constituent material to realising a smart city…”

“Data is central to the majority of scientific and engineering endeavor [54] with the area of movement analysis and modelling being no exception.”

“Culti-vating this need for speed is a kind of prerequisite or perhaps a mechanism for the rapid spread of data analytics and what we have come to refer to as the big data revolution (for some critical reflections on this broader notion see Kitchin 2014).”

“The focus here is on digital data assemblages, or the socio-political, technical and economic apparatuses that constitute the production, circulation, and deployment of digital data in complex and intertwined ways (Iliadis & Russo, 2016; Kitchin, 2014).”

“…of CC-HSDI is freely available, questions of how to provide access to costly, restricted-access, and/or sensitive data (de Kleijn et al. 2014; Kitchin 2014) are a shared concern with all SDI projects and will require further evolutions of the HSDI interface and sharing model as those types…”

“Email: wanless@ohio.edu SIJ be the most significant (Kitchin, 2014).”

“In addition, algo‐ rithms are constantly being tweaked, tuned, re‐written, repaired, or deleted; as such, they are not fully indepen‐ dent technical objects (Kitchin, 2014; Seaver, 2018) and co‐evolve in their interactions with humans.”

“Kitchin (2014) explores “data ontologies” toward this end, understood as the sociotechnical conditions that undergird the harvesting, analysis, and circulation of data.”

“Publication date: June 2020. applications [Jetzek et al. 2014], including applications driven by Big Data analytics and machine learning [Kitchin 2014].”

“Despite the challenges (Zook et al., 2017), big data sources are increasingly mobilized in many social sciences (Kitchin, 2014; Halford and Savage, 2017) for “supplementing existing data sources and providing a richer understanding of the multiple social and spatial processes” in our cities (Zook…”

“…and Powell, 2014; Crawford et al., 2014; Dalton and Thatcher, 2014; Dencik et al., 2016; Hoffmann, 2017; Iliadis and Russo, 2016; Johnson, 2014; Kitchin, 2014a; 2014b; Kitchin and Lauriault, 2014; Markham, 2013; Mayernik and Acker, 2018; Milan and van der Velden, 2016; Neff et al., 2017;…”

“Kitchin (2014) calls these data types secondary data.”