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When Police Kill
Abstract
Franklin Zimring compiles data from federal records, crowdsourced research, and investigative journalism to provide a comprehensive, fact-based picture of how, when, where, and why police use deadly force. He offers prescriptions for how federal, state, and local governments could reduce killings at minimum cost without risking officers’ lives.
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“Any analysis of police deadly force restricted to data that only include fatalities may produce results that are statistically biased by factors that influence mortality, such as whether bullets strike vital organs [12], whether police officers administer first aid or engage in “scoop and run” practices [15, 16], and whether an adult trauma care center is nearby [17, 18].”
From Factors associated with police shooting mortality: A focus on race and a plea for more comprehensive data (2021) · cites this paper as [12]
In the citing paper
“Head/Torso shot measured whether police gunfire struck the victim’s head, chest, or upper back (1 = yes), where the odds of striking a vital organ are greater, thus increasing the likelihood of mortality [12].”
From Factors associated with police shooting mortality: A focus on race and a plea for more comprehensive data (2021) · cites this paper as [12]
In the citing paper
“we had no data on other situational factors, such as the number of rounds fired by officers or which struck victims, each of which increase the odds of mortality [12], and therefore might render some of our observed statistical relationships spurious.”
From Factors associated with police shooting mortality: A focus on race and a plea for more comprehensive data (2021) · cites this paper as [12]
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Procedural justice training reduces police use of force and complaints against officers
Wood, G., Tyler, T. R., & Papachristos, A. V. (2020) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1920671117 · Cited by 215
American Policing and the Danger Imperative
Sierra‐Arévalo, M. (2021) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.1111/lasr.12526 · Cited by 189
Does de‐escalation training work?
ENGEL, R. S., McManus, H. D., & Herold, T. D. (2020) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12467 · Cited by 175
Race and Worrying About Police Brutality: The Hidden Injuries of Minority Status in America
Graham, A., Haner, M., Sloan, M. M., Cullen, F. T., Kulig, T. C., & Jonson, C. L. (2020) · Victims & Offenders · doi:10.1080/15564886.2020.1767252 · Cited by 167
“Public perceptions as they relate specifically to police brutality are a particularly salient concern in the wake police use of force (Zimring, 2017) and the Black Lives Matter movement (Garza, 2014).”
BackgroundInfluentialCommunity policing does not build citizen trust in police or reduce crime in the Global South
Blair, G., Weinstein, J. M., Christia, F., Arias, E., Badran, E., Blair, R., Cheema, A., Farooqui, A. Z., Fetzer, T., Grossman, G., et al. (2021) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abd3446 · Cited by 149
Feldman, J. M., Gruskin, S., Coull, B. A., & Krieger, N. (2017) · PLOS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002399 · Cited by 122
Reducing fatal police shootings as system crashes: Research, theory, and practice
Sherman, L. W. (2018) · Annual Review of Criminology · doi:10.1146/annurev-criminol-032317-092409 · Cited by 120
Engel, R. S., Corsaro, N., Isaza, G. T., & McManus, H. D. (2022) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12574 · Cited by 107
“This is supported by research demonstrating that over 40% of fatal encounters with police involve an unarmed suspect or suspect armed with less than a firearm (Sherman, 2018; Zimring, 2017).”
Tregle, B., Nix, J., & Alpert, G. P. (2018) · Journal of Crime and Justice · doi:10.1080/0735648x.2018.1547269 · Cited by 94
“We can learn a great deal from these data (see Sherman 2018; Zimring 2017), as long as we acknowledge the limitations and use a meaningful benchmark to put the numbers into context.”
BackgroundMethodVariation in Rates of Fatal Police Shootings across US States: the Role of Firearm Availability
Hemenway, D., Azrael, D. R., Conner, A. S., & Miller, M. (2018) · Journal of Urban Health · doi:10.1007/s11524-018-0313-z · Cited by 92
Governing through Killing: The War on Drugs in the Philippines
Johnson, D. T., & Fernquest, J. (2018) · Asian Journal of Law and Society · doi:10.1017/als.2018.12 · Cited by 96
ENGEL, R. S., McManus, H. D., & Isaza, G. T. (2020) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/0002716219889328 · Cited by 86
“Despite this lack of information, zimring (2017) boldly predicts that fatal interactions with police could be cut in half without compromising officer safety.”
BackgroundInfluentialDispatch Priming and the Police Decision to Use Deadly Force
Taylor, P. L. (2019) · Police Quarterly · doi:10.1177/1098611119896653 · Cited by 85
Mears, D. P., Craig, M. O., Stewart, E. A., & Warren, P. Y. (2017) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2017.09.001 · Cited by 87
Legal Consciousness and Cultural Capital
Young, K. M., & Billings, K. R. (2020) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.1111/lasr.12455 · Cited by 94
“After all, extensive literature documents differences in police treatment on the basis of race (Epp et al. 2014; Goff et al. 2016; Zimring 2017) and class (Epp et al. 2014; Smith 1986).”
BackgroundFirearm Instrumentality: Do Guns Make Violent Situations More Lethal?
Braga, A. A., Griffiths, E., Sheppard, K. G., & Douglas, S. (2020) · Annual Review of Criminology · doi:10.1146/annurev-criminol-061020-021528 · Cited by 77
Exceptionally Lethal: American Police Killings in a Comparative Perspective
Hirschfield, P. (2022) · Annual Review of Criminology · doi:10.1146/annurev-criminol-030421-040247 · Cited by 81
“For example, the portion of suspects with accessible guns is directly related to the prevalence of civilian firearms (Zimring 2017).”
InfluentialThe commemoration of death, organizational memory, and police culture
Sierra‐Arévalo, M. (2019) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12224 · Cited by 77
Conner, A. S., Azrael, D. R., Lyons, V. H., Barber, C. W., & Miller, M. (2019) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2018.304904 · Cited by 66
Nix, J., & Shjarback, J. A. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0259024 · Cited by 57
“Third, we had no data on other situational factors, such as the number of rounds fired by officers or which struck victims, each of which increase the odds of mortality [12], and therefore might render some of our observed statistical relationships spurious.”
BackgroundShjarback, J. A., White, M. D., & Bishopp, S. A. (2021) · Injury Prevention · doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2020-043932 · Cited by 57
Does Protest Against Police Violence Matter? Evidence from U.S. Cities, 1990 through 2019
Olzak, S. (2021) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/00031224211056966 · Cited by 53
Perceptions of police: Experiences in the trans*community
Serpe, C. R., & Nadal, K. L. Y. (2017) · Sexual and Gender Diversity in Social Services · doi:10.1080/10538720.2017.1319777 · Cited by 51
“Zimring (2017) suggests that “killings that result in felony charges might be about one in one hundred, an average of about five killings a year that generate indictment against about five hundred officially counted killings,” (p. 173).”
BackgroundDo Officer-Involved Shootings Reduce Citizen Contact with Government?
Cohen, E., Gunderson, A., Schiff, K. J., McLachlan, P., Clark, T. S., Glynn, A., & Owens, M. L. (2019) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/703539 · Cited by 50
Police-Generated Killings: The Gap between Ethics and Law
Jones, B. (2021) · Political Research Quarterly · doi:10.1177/10659129211009596 · Cited by 49
“So it is unwise for an officer to rush to confront a suspect rather than wait for backup when the suspect, though dangerous, poses no immediate threat (Stoughton, Noble, and Alpert 2020, 185; Zimring 2017, 59–61).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Scope of the Problem: Gun Violence in the USA
Hemenway, D., & Nelson, E. W. (2020) · Current Trauma Reports · doi:10.1007/s40719-020-00182-x · Cited by 49
Cook, S. J., & Fortunato, D. (2022) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055422000624 · Cited by 49
“11 For those interested in details on the different methodologies employed in these distinct crowdsourced data-collection efforts, we recommend chapter 2 of Zimring (2017).”
InfluentialAmerican Policing and the Danger ImperativePreprint
Sierra-Arévalo, M. (2016) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2864104 · Cited by 48
"Kids Do Not So Much Make Trouble, They Are Trouble": Police-Youth Relations
Brunson, R. K., & Pegram, K. N. (2018) · The Future of Children · doi:10.1353/foc.2018.0004 · Cited by 43
National Burden of Injury and Deaths From Shootings by Police in the United States, 2015‒2020
Ward, J. A., Cepeda, J., Jackson, D. B., Johnson, O., Webster, D. W., & Crifasi, C. K. (2024) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2023.307560 · Cited by 43
Firearm Availability and Fatal Police Shootings
Nagin, D. S. (2020) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/0002716219896259 · Cited by 42
“2016; Zimring 2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialVideos Don’t Lie: African Americans’ Support for Body-Worn Cameras
Graham, A., McManus, H. D., Cullen, F. T., Burton, V. S., & Jonson, C. L. (2019) · Criminal Justice Review · doi:10.1177/0734016819846229 · Cited by 39
Neighborhood climates of legal cynicism and complaints about abuse of police power†
McCarthy, B., Hagan, J. L., & Herda, D. (2020) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12246 · Cited by 42
Goh, L. S. (2021) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12536 · Cited by 37
Police Abolitionist Discourse? Why It Has Been Missing (and Why It Matters)
Duran, E. B., & Simon, J. S. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108354721.005 · Cited by 37
Fonseca, D. S. (2017) · Punishment & Society · doi:10.1177/1462474517740888 · Cited by 40
Shjarback, J. A., & Nix, J. (2019) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2019.101653 · Cited by 38
Carlson, J. (2019) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/707609 · Cited by 29
Racial Innocence: Law, Social Science, and the Unknowing of Racism in the US Carceral State
Murakawa, N. (2019) · Annual Review of Law and Social Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-101518-042649 · Cited by 31
Gun victimization in the line of duty
Sierra‐Arévalo, M., & Nix, J. (2020) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12507 · Cited by 32
“Recognizing that the federal government has historically struggled to compile timely and reliable national-level criminal justice data (Alpert, 2016; Alpert, 1948; Zimring, 2017), we see more promise in efforts to compile such data at the state level.”
BackgroundPolice Killings as a Problem of Governance
Zimring, F. E. (2020) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/0002716219888627 · Cited by 31
Self-citationWill Black Lives Matter to the Police? African Americans’ Concerns about Trump’s Presidency
McManus, H. D., Cullen, F. T., Jonson, C. L., Burton, A. L., & Burton, V. S. (2019) · Victims & Offenders · doi:10.1080/15564886.2019.1671288 · Cited by 30
Gray, A. C., & Parker, K. F. (2020) · Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice · doi:10.1080/15377938.2020.1774952 · Cited by 31
Lake, M. (2022) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055421001441 · Cited by 31
“Yet growing public attention to state violence and police brutality in institutionalized democracies (González 2020; Hinton 2021; Zimring 2017) calls this assumption, long challenged in more critical circles, into question.”
BackgroundDo Police Body-Worn Cameras Reduce Citizen Fatalities? Results of a Country-Wide Natural Experiment
Miller, J., & Chillar, V. F. (2021) · Journal of quantitative criminology · doi:10.1007/s10940-021-09513-w
The Current Crisis of American Criminal Justice: A Structural Analysis
Garland, D. (2023) · Annual Review of Criminology · doi:10.1146/annurev-criminol-030722-035139 · Cited by 29
The “war on cops,” retaliatory violence, and the murder of George Floyd*
Sierra‐Arévalo, M., Nix, J., & Mourtgos, S. M. (2023) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12334 · Cited by 32
Disenfranchised Grief and Families’ Experiences of Death After Police Contact in the United States
Baker, D., Norris, D., & Cherneva, V. (2019) · OMEGA - Journal of Death and Dying · doi:10.1177/0030222819846420 · Cited by 28
“Deaths after police contact (DAPC) pose questions about the legitimacy of police and their capacity to protect and serve citizens (see, e.g., Katz, 2015; Rushin, 2017; Zimring, 2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialEvidence-Based Policing and Fatal Police Shootings: Promise, Problems, and Prospects
Sherman, L. W. (2020) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/0002716220902073 · Cited by 26
“As Zimring (2017) points out, a high proportion of people shot fatally by police are mentally ill, if only transiently.”
BackgroundFatal police shootings of civilians, by rurality
Hemenway, D., Berrigan, J., Azrael, D. R., Barber, C. W., & Miller, M. (2020) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2020.106046 · Cited by 27
“Homicide rates are much higher in the United States than in other high-income countries (Grinshteyn and Hemenway, 2019) as are rates of law enforcement killings of civilians (Zimring, 2017).”
BackgroundLethal Violence: A Global View on Homicide
Oberwittler, D. (2019) · Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190264079.013.402 · Cited by 31
Nix, J. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0236158 · Cited by 25
Racial Sympathy and Support for Capital Punishment: A Case Study in Concept Transfer
Hannan, K. R., Cullen, F. T., Butler, L. C., Graham, A., Burton, A. L., & Burton, V. S. (2021) · Deviant Behavior · doi:10.1080/01639625.2021.1899756 · Cited by 26
“Research reveals that, compared to Whites, African Americans are 2.3 times more likely to be killed by law enforcement officers (Zimring 2017) and over five times more likely than Whites to worry about police brutality – what Graham and colleagues (2020: 1) refer to as a “hidden injury of minority…”
BackgroundInfluentialBaker, D., & Pillinger, C. (2019) · Policing & Society · doi:10.1080/10439463.2019.1581193 · Cited by 28
Taylor, P. L. (2019) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12460 · Cited by 24
The impact of Crisis Intervention Team Training for police
Hassell, K. D. (2020) · International Journal of Police Science & Management · doi:10.1177/1461355720909404 · Cited by 21
“Each year, there are about 55,000 assaults against police; this represents a risk of one assault for every ten police officers (Bierie, 2017; Zimring, 2017).”
Background“Engineering Resilience” Into Split-Second Shoot/No Shoot Decisions: The Effect of Muzzle-Position
Taylor, P. L. (2020) · Police Quarterly · doi:10.1177/1098611120960688 · Cited by 24
“As we recant ad nauseam in our literature reviews on the topic, police use of deadly force is extremely rare (e.g., Alpert & Fridell, 1992; Fyfe, 1988; Geller & Scott, 1992; Sherman, 1980; Zimring, 2017) and the vast majority of calls for service and contacts with the public, even high risk calls involving weapons (e.”
BackgroundExamining the Effects of Neighborhood Contextual Factors on Officer-Involved Shootings
Arnio, A. N. (2019) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2019.1679862 · Cited by 21
“Such observations can leave officers fearful of future encounters with occupants and more likely to respond to a perceived or actual threat with deadly force (Zimring, 2017).”
BackgroundExamining the Relevance of Contextual Gun Ownership on Fatal Police Shootings
Sheppard, K. G., Zimmerman, G. M., & Fridel, E. E. (2021) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2021.1922733 · Cited by 20
“Indeed, firearms are responsible for the overwhelming majority of officer lethal victimizations (Swedler et al., 2015; White et al., 2019; Zimring, 2017).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialOfficer Networks and Firearm Behaviors: Assessing the Social Transmission of Weapon-Use
Ouellet, M., Hashimi, S., & Yon, G. G. V. (2022) · Journal of Quantitative Criminology · doi:10.1007/s10940-022-09546-9 · Cited by 20
“A range of risk factors shape the likelihood an officer will use their firearm, from the department they work in and the neighborhoods they patrol (Fyfe 1982; Klinger 2004; Zimring 2017) to the citizens they encounter (Milton et al.”
BackgroundGaynor, T. S., Kang, S. C., & Williams, B. N. (2021) · RSF The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences · doi:10.7758/rsf.2021.7.1.04 · Cited by 20
“Franklin Zimring (2017) conducted a comprehensive study of police use of lethal force in the United States.”
Reparations for Police Killings
Page, J. M. (2019) · Perspectives on Politics · doi:10.1017/s1537592719002652 · Cited by 19
“4 Zimring (2017, 86) computes what this rate means for American police: “ In a major city police force of 10,000 of fi cers, a fatal assault risk of 7.1 per 100,000 translates into one killing in an average two-year period.”
InfluentialGoldilocks and the three “Ts”: Targeting, testing, and tracking for “just right” democratic policing
Sherman, L. W. (2022) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12578 · Cited by 19
“Excellent analysis of newspaper compilation evidence is already available on the distribution of police killings across different kinds of situations (Zimring, 2017).”
BackgroundFirearms law and fatal police shootings: a panel data analysis
Rogna, M., & Nguyen, B. D. (2021) · Applied Economics · doi:10.1080/00036846.2021.2003290 · Cited by 20
“From a speculative point of view, firearms prevalence may increase the probability of police officers facing armed people while on duty, thus increasing the probability of them being involved in potentially dangerous situations that require their use of guns (Zimring 2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialSiegel, M., Poulson, M. R., Sangar, R., & Jay, J. S. (2021) · Race and Social Problems · doi:10.1007/s12552-020-09307-y · Cited by 23
Gibbs, E. D. (2020) · Vassar Scholarship (Vassar College) · Cited by 16
Israel‐Trummel, M., & Streeter, S. (2022) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfac017 · Cited by 16
Shjarback, J. A. (2019) · Journal of Crime and Justice · doi:10.1080/0735648x.2018.1547353 · Cited by 15
“Even hit rates approaching the upper-level estimates of 50% (Klinger et al. 2016 [6] ; White 2006) will miss nearly half of all cases of lethal force.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialApplying the Imminence Requirement to Police
Jones, B. (2023) · Criminal Justice Ethics · doi:10.1080/0731129x.2023.2187188 · Cited by 14
Police Obligations to Aggressors with Mental Illness
Jones, B. (2023) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/726972 · Cited by 14
Domestic Disturbances and Fatal Police Shootings: An Analysis of the Washington Post’s Data
Pinchevsky, G. M., & Nix, J. (2017) · Police Quarterly · doi:10.1177/1098611117735657 · Cited by 15
The Need for a Canadian Database of Police Use-of-Force Incidents
Bennell, C., Brown, A. S., Jenkins, B., Khanizadeh, A., MacIsaac, A., & Semple, T. (2021) · Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice/La Revue canadienne de criminologie et de justice pénale · doi:10.3138/cjccj.2021-0022 · Cited by 14
Engel, R. S., Isaza, G. T., Motz, R. T., McManus, H. D., & Corsaro, N. (2022) · Police Quarterly · doi:10.1177/10986111211049834 · Cited by 14
“It is estimated that these types of situations account for over 40% of all fatal police shootings (Sherman, 2018; Zimring, 2017).”
BackgroundUsing the Police Craft to Improve Patrol Officer Decision-Making
Willis, J. J., & Toronjo, H. (2023) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009314534 · Cited by 10
Body Count Politics: Quantification, Secrecy, and Capital Punishment in China
Smith, T. (2020) · Law & Social Inquiry · doi:10.1017/lsi.2020.10 · Cited by 11
“Wherever states take life—from police shootings to war casualties—body count politics may mediate assessments of legitimate state action, including what “counts” as legitimate death (Andreas and Greenhill 2010; Greenhill 2010; Zimring 2017).”
BackgroundBlair, J. P., & Duron, A. (2022) · The Police Journal Theory Practice and Principles · doi:10.1177/0032258x221087827 · Cited by 10
“This is quite similar to the prevention of shootings and harm reduction suggestions made by researchers examining shootings by the police in the United States (see, for example, Sherman, 2018; Zimring, 2017).”
ResultBetween Elitism and Populism: A Case for Pluralism in Schooling and Homeschooling
Maranto, R. (2020) · Journal of School Choice · doi:10.1080/15582159.2020.1856562 · Cited by 10
“Consider also the failings of expert police procedures, at least regarding avoiding killing civilians (Zimring, 2017).”
BackgroundPolicing, punishment and comparative penality
Newburn, T., & Jones, T. (2022) · The British Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1093/bjc/azac032 · Cited by 9
Owning Police Reform: The Path Forward for Practitioners and Researchers
ENGEL, R. S., Isaza, G. T., & McManus, H. D. (2022) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/s12103-022-09719-z · Cited by 10
“Although there is debate concerning how much of the crime reduction was a product of police reform, research consistently suggests that changes in policing made at least some difference in crime prevention and control (Eck & Maguire, 2000; Engel & Eck, 2015; Zimring, 2007, 2017).”
ResultUsing Multiple Flawed Measures to Construct Valid and Reliable Rates of Homicide by Police
Renner, M. (2018) · Homicide Studies · doi:10.1177/1088767918786756 · Cited by 8
Bearfield, D. A., Maranto, R., & Wolf, P. J. (2020) · Public Integrity · doi:10.1080/10999922.2020.1810601 · Cited by 7
Sherman, L. W., & Kumar, S. (2021) · Cambridge Journal of Evidence-Based Policing · doi:10.1007/s41887-021-00065-4 · Cited by 8
Analyzing Urban Politics: A Mobilization–Governance Framework
McGovern, S. J. (2019) · Urban Affairs Review · doi:10.1177/1078087418820174 · Cited by 8
“Mass incarceration was provoking increased anger among residents who felt they had been unfairly targeted, a sentiment that intensified with a sudden increase in high-profile police shootings of unarmed Black men on city streets around the country (Zimring 2017).”
BackgroundRidgeway, G. K., Cave, B., Grieco, J., & Loeffler, C. E. (2020) · Journal of Quantitative Criminology · doi:10.1007/s10940-020-09468-4 · Cited by 8
“…police shootings results from four primary decisions, (1) whether police will shoot at all, (2) when police stop shooting and how many rounds they fire, (3) what medical care police provide immediately, and (4) whether police immediately transport to a hospital those they have shot (Zimring 2017).”
InfluentialPolice in the urban world: A primer
Owens, M. L. (2024) · Journal of Urban Affairs · doi:10.1080/07352166.2024.2369464 · Cited by 7
“That means, police have authority to use physical force by weapons or otherwise, as well as de-escalation tactics, during encounters with urban denizens (Alves, 2018; LeBrón, 2019; Taylor, 2021; Zimring, 2017).”
Community Contexts Predicting Fatal Police Shootings of Youth, 2014–2018
Rafail, P. (2024) · Youth & Society · doi:10.1177/0044118x241245145 · Cited by 6
“Brown’s death was one of many fatal police shootings (FPS) of minors and early adults, which exhibit sharp racial disparities in their distribution (Edwards et al., 2018; Zimring, 2017).”
Friend Not Foe? Reconsidering Race, the Police, and Community Relations
McManus, H. D., Graham, A., Cullen, F. T., Burton, V. S., & Jonson, C. L. (2019) · Race and Justice · doi:10.1177/2153368719849486 · Cited by 7
“…& Lowrey-Kinberg, 2017), a string of highly publicized police-involved shootings of unarmed Black men (Sherman, 2018; Sparrow, 2016; Weitzer, 2015; Zimring, 2017), and the proliferation of a national movement asserting the presence of systemic racial biases and injustice within the criminal…”
BackgroundAn ethical intuitionist account of transparency of algorithms and its gradations
Hayes, P. (2020) · BuR - Business Research · doi:10.1007/s40685-020-00138-6 · Cited by 7
“…negative contacts with agents of justice and security, and exacerbate issues of discrimination and racial inequality (Ferguson 2017b), where in the worst circumstances minorities like Black Americans already face disproportionate violence and victimisation at the hands of the police (Zimring 2017).”
BackgroundCivic Responses to Police ViolencePreprint
Ang, D., & Tebes, J. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3722241 · Cited by 6
Police Violence in Black and White
Roychoudhury, D. (2022) · Du Bois Review Social Science Research on Race · doi:10.1017/s1742058x22000029 · Cited by 6
“When police use lethal force and kill both young and adult civilians, people rely on various sources of news to learn about what unfolded during the fatal encounter (Hunt 1997; Lawrence 2000; Zimring 2017).”
BackgroundStereotypes, Crime, and Policing
O’Flaherty, B., & Sethi, R. (2023) · Annual Review of Criminology · doi:10.1146/annurev-criminol-022422-120610 · Cited by 8
Primed and Ready: Does Arming Police Increase Safety? Preliminary Findings
Farmer, C., & Evans, R. (2019) · Violence and Gender · doi:10.1089/vio.2019.0020 · Cited by 5
Sources of organizational variability in fatal police shootings in the USA
Neil, R., MacDonald, J., & Braga, A. A. (2025) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-025-02169-7 · Cited by 4
“This includes differences in culture and norms, and departmental protocols on dealing with tense confrontations—what officer behaviours are tolerated or encouraged with respect to the use of force, and in particular the use of their guns 1,3 .”
Manhunt Presidency: Obama, race, and the Third World
Krishna, S. (2019) · Third World Quarterly · doi:10.1080/01436597.2018.1533787 · Cited by 4
Which Police Departments Make Black Lives Matter?
Maranto, R., Reilly, W., & Wolf, P. J. (2024) · Administration & Society · doi:10.1177/00953997241226892 · Cited by 4
“As academics (Moskos, 2008; Zimring, 2011, 2017), prosecutors (Butler, 2017; Kennedy, 1998), and even some police leaders (Bratton & Knobler, 2021) detail, this will require substantial reforms of police organizations.”
BackgroundThe Holy Grail of Democratic Policing
Worden, R. E., & Dole, C. J. (2019) · Criminal Justice Ethics · doi:10.1080/0731129x.2019.1586217 · Cited by 4
Boivin, R., Bernier, D., Ostiguy, R., Gagnon, C., & Gendron, A. (2022) · Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology · doi:10.1007/s11896-022-09527-5 · Cited by 4
Exploring Officers’ Perceptions of Mandated Crisis Intervention Training
Hassell, K. D. (2022) · Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology · doi:10.1007/s11896-022-09501-1 · Cited by 3
“2013; Zimring and Arsiniega 2015; Zimring 2017).”
BackgroundUnveiling the Unseen: Documenting and Analyzing Nonfatal Shootings by Police
Nix, J. (2024) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2024.307609 · Cited by 3
Voting with Their Guns: An Integrated Framework of How Police Politically Administer Violence
Flom, H. (2024) · Perspectives on Politics · doi:10.1017/s1537592724000653 · Cited by 3
“1 Recent research has shed light on police brutality in developed and developing democracies alike (Fassin 2013; González 2020; Zimring 2017).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Zimring, F. E.
- Corresponding author
- Zimring, Franklin E.
- Venue
- Harvard University Press eBooks
- Publisher
- Harvard University Press
- Published
- 2017-12-31
- OpenAlex
- W2782607670
- Cited by
- 186
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 26 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 29 · 2019: 24 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 9
- FWCI
- 22.40
- Type
- book
- Language
- fr
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Harvard University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
- Social Sciences › Health › Gun Ownership and Violence Research
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
- Keywords
- police use of deadly force, police killings, police brutality, gun violence, homicide prevention, police accountability, law enforcement policy
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