Explicit Learning in the L2 Classroom

“This research has tended to focus on the construct of noticing, differentiating between noticing at the level of detection, awareness, and understanding (Leow, 2015; Robinson, 1995).”

“Again, this finding alludes to the distinction between form and meaning; specifically, to the notion that making a form-meaning connection entails a greater depth of processing than registering the form (Craik & Lockhart, 1972; Leow, 2015).”

“Knowledge processing includes internalization, modification, and consolidation of knowledge (Leow, 2015).”

“'Weaker' accounts suggest that learners can use EI to segment or parse the input (Terrell, 1991), notice features (Schmidt, 1990), understand a rule and help production (Leow, 2015), and arrive at correct interpretations with fewer practice items (Henry et al., 2009).”

“Additionally, receiving EI seems to yield higher levels of TL awareness, which is associated with more successful learning (Leow, 2015; Schmidt, 2001).”

“Even though evidence for implicit adult L2 learning appears to be accruing (see Ellis, 2002 ; Williams, 2009 , for reviews; but DeKeyser, 2003 , and Leow, 2015 , for more cautious positions), many questions remain and warrant an exploration of the topic beyond a narrow focus on whether learning…”

“Online Appendix A, which includes a coded full verbal protocol (reported in Leow, 2015 ), provides an insightful account of the cognitive processes employed by one participant in our GI group, Mark.”

“, 2015), that is, theymay have differed in degree of cognitive effort, level of analysis, and intake elaboration (Leow, 2015).”

“…the input processing theory (VanPatten, 2015) and other perspectives related to L2 processing (e.g., N. Ellis et al., 2014; N. Ellis & Wulff, 2015; Leow, 2015) may want to explore the boundaries of when learners can attend to form and meaning while processing input for comprehension (see Marsden,…”

“…over incidental and implicit learning, ISLA research may better inform teachers, language curricula, and teaching methodology by focusing on the potential roles either intentional or explicit learning (see also N. Ellis, 2015; Leow, 2015a) may play in promoting more robust learning in this setting.”

“…entail automatic processing because automaticity is conceptualized as qualitatively different from a simple speed-up (i.e., quicker execution of controlled procedures; Hulstijn et al., 2009; Segalowitz, 2010, also see Leow, 2015, for an overview of controlled and automatic processing of the L2).”

“The positive relationship between depth of processing and learning has long been posited (Craik & Lockhart, 1972; Craik & Tulving, 1975) and supported, also for SLA (Laufer & Hulstijn, 2001; Leow, 2015).”

“However, the lack of significant links between the eye-tracking indices and development in the enhanced group implies that more attention, unless it triggers greater depth of processing, does not necessarily lead to more learning (Godfroid et al., 2013; Leow, 2015).”

“Indeed, at least three theoretical L2 models claim that attention is necessary for L2 development (Leow, 2015; Robinson, 2003; Schmidt, 1990, 1993) and at least one claims that attention is both necessary and sufficient (Tomlin & Villa, 1994).”

“While the role of learner attention or the extent to which learners need to be consciously aware of certain linguistic forms in order to learn them is a contentious issue in the field of SLA, many researchers believe that learning cannot occur without some degree of attention to form or noticing (Schmidt, 2001; Dought…”

“The research above provides evidence that, arguably, aligns with an information processing (skill acquisition) account of learning に that awareness at the level of understanding (Leow 2015) can with practice become proceduralised knowledge, and eventually automatised (DeKeyser 2007).”

“In other words, the design of the study did not capture some of the very first lexical processing in the development, measuring only the processing of products of learning, not processing during the learning process (Godfroid, 2019; Leow, 2015).”

“Considering that the stimulated recall comments indicate a low level of awareness (Schmidt, 1990) or depth of processing (Leow, 2015), the findings appear to imply that the impact of the reading activity manipulation on learners’ awareness appeared to be only marginal.”

“…which showed that repetitive revoicing and imitation of authentic contexts enhances learners’ English-speaking ability (He & Wasuntarasophit, 2015; Pamungkas, 2019) together with other studies that have reported the beneficial role of depth of processing in L2 development (Leow, 2015, 2019).”

“Although previous research has tended to code awareness based on a single mention of the feature under study (for review, see Leow, 2015), an awareness threshold of 30% of mentions or greater was used to provide a more stringent classification.”

“This approach should facilitate ending up with a coherent, process-oriented description of the levels of processing involved (Leow, 2015).”

“Leow (2015) sees variable prior knowledge as a limitation on PI research and prefers the participants to have no prior knowledge.”

“The most important indication is probably that implicit learning effects are generally small (Leow, 2015).”

“The significant role of engagement here also emphasizes the importance of deep processing and active involvement (see also Leow, 2015, 2019) in social situations and emotionally-enhanced task conditions.”

“All L2 participants in the current study received classroom instruction that was explicitly form-focused in the earlier stages of L2 learning (Leow 2015).”

“Providing feedback is hard work for language teachers although most educators and many SLA researchers believe in the value of attention to form in one way or another (e.g. Leow, 2015; Robinson, 2003).”

“The criterion of scoring 60% or less on the pretest has been called into question as allowing for participants to have varying amounts of (uncontrolled for) prior knowledge of the target (Leow, 2015, p. 111).”

“This decision was made to triangulate eye-fixation data that represent lower-level processes at the level of attention with the participants’ verbal reports that were produced at the level of awareness (Leow, 2015).”

“compositions written within the natural writing conditions of a foreign language curriculum were transcribed, coded for depth of processing (DoP) (Leow, 2015), and correlated with subsequent performances on the target items.”

“Beyond these morphosyntactic differences, these target forms were selected because they also differ substantially in terms of intrinsic salience, and thus in the likelihood that they will be noticed and further processed in learners’WM (e.g., N. Ellis, 2017; Leow, 2015; VanPatten, 2004).”

“The assumption that underlies textual enhancement is that visually salient target linguistic constructions will attract learners’ attention and, further, increased attention will result in promoting development in the use of L2 knowledge (Leow, 2015).”

“…countered this hypothesis by demonstrating the existence of learning without awareness, and several subsequent studies have investigated Williams’ contention (e.g. Andringa and Rebuschat, 2015; Bergsleithner et al., 2013; Leow, 2015; Monaghan and Rebuschat, 2019; Rebuschat and Williams, 2012).”

“This might have involved “cognitive effort, level of analysis, elaboration of intake together with the usage of prior knowledge, hypothesis testing and rule formation” (Leow, 2015, p. 204).”

“This is not surprising because, as noted by Leow (2015), the construct of awareness had not been methodologically and empirically addressed in the field of SLA until the latter part of the 90s.”

“Leow (2015) also underscores the central role of the depth of processing (DoP) during the feedback processing stage, referring to the cognitive effort individuals deploy to process the input via activating prior knowledge, testing hypotheses and forming rules.”

“‘Learning’ itself can be defined and operationalized in many task-specific ways (Ellis et al., 2020; Larsen-Freeman, 2017; Leow, 2015).”

“condition to reflect, rehearse, and better process a morphosyntactic rule, that is, promoting a high depth of processing (Leow, 2015).”

“Comments in the TAPs were categorized into low, medium, or high DoP and calculated using Zamora’s (2017) three-level DoP scoring system, consistent with Leow’s (2012, 2015, 2020) psycholinguistic framework of feedback processing.”

“On the other hand, learners with higher WM capacities would have the cognitive resources to both avoid the distraction caused by the audio input and effectively use the auditory information to process the words at a deeper level (Craik & Lockhart, 1972; Leow, 2015).”

“However, inquiries into instructed learning seem to have grown into a passion, notably from 1980s onwards (for recent syntheses, see, e.g. Ellis & Shintani, 2013; Leow, 2015; Loewen, 2015; Loewen & Sato, 2017; Long, 2015, 2017; Nassaji, 2016a, 2015; VanPatten, 2017).”

“Therefore, we argue that the results support the premise that explicit teaching and practice (e.g. Leow, 2015) of both form and meaning is essential for learning MWEs.”

“, I don’t remember it at all; There was no special reason), implying text processing at a relatively lower-level (Craik & Lockhart, 1972; Leow, 2015).”

“This kind of research (e.g., Leow, 2015; Robinson & Kiewra, 1995) recognizes gradations of cognitive involvement, with the term engagement being used almost synonymously.”

“Based on Leow (2020) and past research on the relationship between high DoP and subsequent learning outcomes (Leow, 2015), these are instances that have the greatest potential for leading to learning gains.”

“Leow (2015, p. 204) defined this deep processing as “the relative amount of cognitive effort, level of analysis, and elaboration of intake, together with the usage of prior knowledge, hypotheses testing, and rule formation, employed in decoding and encoding some grammatical or lexical information in…”

“…levels of accuracy through purely meaning-based instruction has led researchers to propose that some degree of attention to form is necessary in order for language acquisition to take place (e.g. R. Ellis, 2001, 2003; Leow, 2015; Loewen, 2018, 2019; Long, 1991, 2015, 2016; Spada & Lightbown, 2008).”

“See Leow (2015b) for a review of Ellis and Sagarra (2010) and proposal for a series of conceptual replications focused on”